目录
C1 Teaching by Analogy: From Theory to Practice
- S1.1 [描述性拆分] Abstract and Introduction
- 页码:1-1
- S1.2 [描述性拆分] Defining Analogy: Source–Target Mapping and Relational Structure
- 页码:1-1
- S1.3 [描述性拆分] Journal Information and Figure 1 Caption
- 页码:1-14
S1.1 [描述性拆分] Abstract and Introduction
第1段(P0001)
原文复述
本页段为Markdown格式的图像占位符,原标记为’
’。嵌入式图像数据已被省略,仅保留位置标记与图注占位。
中文讲解
这是位于第1页的一个Markdown图像/乐谱占位符。原始标记以中文写明’第1页图像或乐谱示例’,但具体的图像或乐谱内容在提取时被省略,仅保留了位置与图注占位符。鉴于它出现在论文首页顶端、紧邻标题与作者行的位置,该占位符最可能对应期刊的版头图示、装饰性插图或与本节配套的示意性版面元素;具体的图像内容与图注信息需查阅原版文献确认,原文此处没有相应的文字说明。
第2段(P0002)
原文复述
Teaching by Analogy: From Theory to Practice
中文讲解
这是论文的总标题。冒号把标题切为两部分:主标题’Teaching by Analogy’界定了文章的研究对象——以类比作为教学手段;副标题’From Theory to Practice’点明了文章意图——把类比研究领域的既有理论成果落地为教师可操作的教学实践。标题在结构上预告了全文的核心组织:先综述类比学习的理论与实证证据,再据此提炼出若干条可直接使用的教学原则。这一小节标题承担’开门见山’的功能,让读者在进入摘要之前先把握论文的对象与方法论取向。
第3段(P0003)
原文复述
Maureen E. Gray1 and Keith J. Holyoak1
中文讲解
这是论文的署名行,由两位作者组成:Maureen E. Gray 与 Keith J. Holyoak。两人姓名后均带有同一上标'1’,表明他们共享同一署名单位(具体机构名称载于脚注1,本节正文未直接给出)。两姓名之间用’and’连接,符合英文学术论文双人合著的署名规范。该署名行在小节层面的作用是明确论文的作者身份,并把阅读的学术权威锚定到具体研究者上;同名上标则暗示该文是两人在同一机构内合作的成果。
第4段(P0004)
原文复述
ABSTRACT— Analogy is a powerful tool for fostering conceptual understanding and transfer in STEM and other fields. Well-constructed analogical comparisons focus attention on the causal-relational structure of STEM concepts, and provide a powerful capability to draw inferences based on a well-understood source domain that can be applied to a novel target domain. However, analogy must be applied with consideration to students’ prior knowledge and cognitive resources. We briefly review theoretical and empirical support for incorporating analogy into education, and recommend five general principles to guide its application so as to maximize the potential benefits. For analogies to be effective, instructors should use well-understood source analogs and explain correspondences fully; use visuospatial and verbal supports to emphasize shared structure among analogs; discuss the alignment between semantic and formal representations; reduce extraneous cognitive load imposed by analogical comparison; and encourage generation of inferences when students have some proficiency with the material. These principles can be applied flexibly to topics in a wide variety of domains.
中文讲解
这段是论文的摘要(ABSTRACT),承担浓缩全篇主旨的功能。它包含若干层递进的主张:(1) 总论点——类比是促进STEM等领域概念理解与学习迁移(transfer)的有力工具;(2) 机制说明——构造良好的类比之所以有效,是因为它把注意力聚焦到STEM概念的’因果-关系结构’(causal-relational structure)上,并让人能从一个已充分理解的源域(source domain)向一个新颖的目标域(target domain)进行推论;(3) 限定与提醒——‘然而’(However)一词构成重要转折,强调类比的使用必须顾及学生的先备知识与认知资源,提示类比并非无条件万能;(4) 文章目标——作者宣称将简要回顾支持类比教学的理论与实证证据,并提出五条通用原则(five general principles)以最大化其效益;(5) 五条原则的列举——使用充分理解的源类比并充分解释对应关系;使用视觉空间与言语支持以强调类比之间的共享结构;讨论语义表征与形式表征之间的对应;降低类比比较所造成的外在认知负荷;在学生已具备一定熟练度时鼓励其自行生成推论;(6) 适用范围——这些原则可灵活应用于众多领域。摘要中并列出现的语气差异值得注意:作者一方面把原则定位为’recommend’(建议),另一方面又用’must’强调类比使用必须考虑学生差异,体现了’可推广建议’与’必要约束’并存的论证策略。
补充说明
原摘要中’efective’为明显排印错误,正确拼写应为’effective’(漏一字母 f);该错误为印刷疏漏而非术语差异,复述中已按正确拼写还原。其余术语、人名、数字与限定词均严格保留原文。
第5段(P0005)
原文复述
Our aim in this paper is to outline a general strategy for teaching by analogy, based on theoretical principles derived from extensive research on analogical problem solving. The overarching theme is that learning by analogy needs to be guided by the pragmatic goals of the learner (and of the teacher), and hence must focus on the causal structure of situations. Moreover, fostering transfer of learning with analogical reasoning requires attention to the varying cognitive resources that students possess.
中文讲解
这是论文正文的第一句话,进入引言的纲领性陈述。它在摘要的总命题之上又向前推进了三步:(1) 总目的——勾勒一种’通过类比进行教学’的通用策略(a general strategy for teaching by analogy),而该策略建立在源自大量类比问题解决研究(analogical problem solving)的理论原则之上;这一表述将本文与认知心理学中长期存在的类比研究传统显式对接,暗示文章并非从零立论,而是对既有理论做教学落地。(2) 总主题(overarching theme)——类比学习必须由学习者(以及教师)的实用目标(pragmatic goals)所引导,因此必须聚焦于情境的因果结构(causal structure of situations)。‘hence’(因此)一词揭示了从’目标导向’到’聚焦因果’的推理链:正因为目标是解决实际问题,所以仅停留在表层相似并不够,必须深入到因果机制。(3) 补充强调——通过类比推理促进学习迁移(transfer)必须关注学生所拥有的、参差不齐的认知资源(varying cognitive resources);‘varying’一词点明学生差异是设计类比教学时不可回避的约束。该段在整篇结构中起定调作用:它告诉读者后文将以’理论→实践策略’的方式展开,并预先铺设了’因果结构’与’认知资源’这两条贯穿全文的主线。
脚注 / 边栏 / 图表 / 附加信息(如有)
本小节(Abstract and Introduction)起始于第1页,包含一处图像占位符(P0001):其原始标记为’[图像说明:第1页图像或乐谱示例]’,内嵌图像数据已被省略,仅保留位置与图注标记;该占位符位于首页顶端,原文未对其作进一步说明,需查阅原版文献。此外,摘要(P0004)中有一处排印错误’efective’(应为 effective),属明显漏字而非术语差异。本小节范围内未出现其他图表说明、边栏或独立脚注正文。
💡 本节核心要点
- 文章以’Teaching by Analogy: From Theory to Practice’为题,明确把’类比教学’的对象定位与’从理论到实践’的双重目标同时摆出,预示了后文’理论综述→教学原则’的展开结构。
- 核心机制论断:类比之所以能促进STEM等领域的概念理解与迁移,是因为它聚焦于概念的’因果-关系结构’,并支持从熟悉的源域向新颖的目标域进行推论;这是整篇论证的理论基石。
- 关键限定:类比教学并非无条件有效——摘要中的’However’转折句与引言中的’varying cognitive resources’共同构成对类比乐观主义的必要约束,强调学生先备知识与认知资源差异不可忽视。
- 文章提出五条通用原则:使用充分理解的源类比并充分说明对应;用视觉空间与言语支持强调共享结构;协调语义表征与形式表征;降低外在认知负荷;在学生具备一定熟练度时鼓励其生成推论。
- 引言的总主题:类比学习必须由学习者与教师的实用目标引导,因而必须聚焦于情境的因果结构;‘hence’一词揭示了’目标导向→聚焦因果’的逻辑链,确立了’目标—因果—迁移’的三段式论证骨架。
- 适用范围:所提原则被定位为可在多种领域中灵活应用,而非某一学科的专属处方,呼应副标题’From Theory to Practice’所承诺的实践可推广性。
🔑 关键术语
- analogy(类比):指从充分理解的源域到新颖目标域之间的结构映射;本节将其界定为促进概念理解与迁移的核心认知机制,是全文的研究对象。
- causal-relational structure(因果-关系结构):概念之间由因果与关系所构成的深层结构;本节强调类比教学有效正是因为它把注意力引向因果-关系结构,而非停留于表层相似,是核心机制论断的关键词。
- source domain / target domain(源域与目标域):源域是学习者已熟悉、用以提供推论基础的情境;目标域是待学习的新情境。本节中类比的’推论能力’就建立在两域之间的结构对应之上。
- transfer(迁移):将一个情境中学到的知识应用于另一个情境;本节把迁移视为类比教学的根本目标之一,并把’认知资源差异’视为影响迁移成败的关键约束。
- cognitive load / extraneous cognitive load(认知负荷 / 外在认知负荷):认知负荷指信息加工所消耗的心智资源,外在认知负荷特指由教学呈现中的无关因素造成的额外负担;本节将其列为类比比较过程中需要主动降低的负面因素。
- semantic vs. formal representations(语义表征与形式表征):语义表征基于概念意义,形式表征基于规则与符号系统;本节将’讨论两者之间的对齐’列为教学原则之一,旨在让学生在意义层面与符号层面之间建立稳定桥梁。
S1.2 [描述性拆分] Defining Analogy: Source–Target Mapping and Relational Structure
第1段(P0006)
原文复述
Two situations are generally said to be analogous if they share a common pattern of relationships—typically including causal relations—among their constituent elements, even though the elements themselves differ across the two situations. Figure 1 illustrates the analogy between a restaurant kitchen and a biological cell (often used in biology classrooms). In general, one situation—the source analog (here the kitchen)—is more familiar, concrete, and/or comprehensible; the source serves to illuminate the target analog (here the cell), which is typically more novel and less well understood. Within each analog, various relations connect two or more entities, each of which plays a particular role in one or more relation. For example, in the source shown in Figure 1, cooks prepare dishes, and in the target ribosomes produce proteins. Analogical reasoning requires the identification of similar relations in the source and target (e.g., prepare and produce; see Lu, Wu, & Holyoak, 2019). Based on corresponding relations, it is possible to find a mapping: a set of systematic correspondences between entities in the source and target that are similar by virtue of their role patterns (e.g., cooks → ribosomes, dishes → proteins; see Gentner, 1983; Halford, Wilson, & Phillips, 1998; Corral & Jones, 2014). Importantly, the mapping hinges on similarity of relational roles, rather than direct similarities between individual entities (e.g., cooks do not resemble ribosomes). The key to learning from an instructional analogy is to first understand why the source behaves as it does, and to then transfer this knowledge to the target.
中文讲解
本段是整节的核心定义段落,需要拆成三层来理解。
第一层给出类比的总体判据:两个情境被视为类比,当且仅当它们的组成元素之间共享一种"关系模式"(a common pattern of relationships),并且这种模式"通常包含因果关系"。注意限定词"typically"——它意味着因果不是硬性条件,但作者预设了因果关系在类比中是最有教学价值的类型。同时,“元素本身可以不同"这一条件至关重要:它把类比与"两个东西长得像"区分开。
第二层引入 source/target 区分及其功能性理由:源类比被选来"照亮"目标类比,依据是熟悉性、具体性、可理解性三项指标;目标类比则是相对新颖或难解的对象。“illuminate"这个词暗示类比不是复制知识,而是把已理解的结构投射出去,让未理解的对象获得结构性的解释。
第三层揭示类比推理的真正机制:在每个类比内部,关系(relations)连接实体(entities),实体扮演角色(roles);类比要做的是识别源与目标中"关系上的相似性”,由此得出 mapping——一套基于角色模式的系统性对应,例如 cooks ↔ ribosomes、dishes ↔ proteins。作者特别强调"映射依赖关系角色的相似,而非实体表面的相似”,并以 cooks 与 ribosomes 形态完全不同作反例。这一区分是结构映射理论(Structure-Mapping Theory, Gentner 1983)的标准表述:类比的解释力来自高阶关系的一致性,而不是一阶属性的重叠。
段末把理论落地为教学操作:要先用源类比建立"为什么会这样"的解释,再把这种解释结构迁移到目标。换言之,类比学习的顺序是 source-understanding → transfer,而不是表面相似性的直接挪用。
本段对全节的意义:它在 S1.2 开篇就锁定了"关系结构(relational structure)“是类比的本体,并据此把后续讨论(mapping 的依据、为什么源不必完美、为什么关系型学科适合类比)全部锚定在这个框架上。
补充说明
本段多次出现关键术语:source analog(源类比)、target analog(目标类比)、mapping(映射)、relational roles(关系角色)。这些术语在本节后续均沿用此定义。段中四位文献引用(Lu, Wu, & Holyoak, 2019; Gentner, 1983; Halford, Wilson, & Phillips, 1998; Corral & Jones, 2014)均对应"结构映射"与"关系复杂度"研究脉络,但本段未展开各文献的具体内容,不在此补充其历史背景。Figure 1 是本段唯一指向的具体图示,其细节(如完整关系图)需查看原图。
第2段(P0007)
原文复述
As is the case for many analogies that may be used in a classroom, the kitchen/cell analogy is not perfect. For example, restaurant kitchens do not reproduce by splitting in two, and the analogy does not capture the complex processes that regulate which genes are expressed in the nucleus. However, if these shortcomings are recognized by the instructor, the analogy can still be valuable. It provides a purposefully simplified representation of the complex behavior of a cell, and emphasizes the most important relations while backgrounding irrelevant information. In general, it is challenging (and often impossible) to find a source analog that perfectly instantiates every relation in the target concept and that introduces no extraneous information. But imperfect source analogs can still be useful in classroom teaching.
中文讲解
本段承担"防御性论证"的功能:在前一段给出类比的强定义之后,作者必须预先回应读者最自然的质疑——“厨房和细胞差这么远,类比怎么站得住脚?“如果不处理这一质疑,整节的说服力会被削弱。
作者用两个具体反例来落缺陷:餐厅厨房不会通过一分为二繁殖;该类比也覆盖不了细胞核内基因表达的复杂调控。这两个反例的选择是有讲究的——一个属于"源缺少目标的关键关系”(自我复制),一个属于"源缺少目标的调控层级”。它们共同说明:源类比几乎不可能穷尽目标的所有结构。
但作者立刻用"however + if"句式做限定性反转:只要教师承认这些局限,类比就仍然有价值。这一条件句把类比有效性从"客观真理"转为"教学工具"层面——类比不必完备,只要它的省略是"有意识的、目标明确的”。
随后是本段最重要的功能陈述:类比提供的是"有目的的简化表征"(purposefully simplified representation),它突出最重要的关系,同时把无关信息背景化。“purposefully"和"backgrounding"这两个词揭示了教学类比与日常类比的关键区别:教师在选用源类比时就已经做过取舍,类比的价值不在镜像复制,而在选择性凸显。
段末把这一观点一般化:找到完美源类比通常是困难乃至不可能的,但"不完美的源类比在课堂教学中仍然有用”。这是对 P0006 的必要补丁——类比不需要达到理论上的同构,只需服务于学习者的结构理解。
本段的作用:为后续讨论数学等抽象领域中的类比使用预先卸下"必须完美"的负担,使读者带着"类比允许简化"的预期进入 P0008。
补充说明
本段明确地把教学类比的有效性条件从"结构完备性"降到"教师对局限的自觉 + 选择性简化"。段中无新增术语,仅是对 P0006 所引入的 source/target 关系的现实约束说明。
第3段(P0008)
原文复述
Many concepts taught in formal and practical disciplines (including but not restricted to the so-called STEM fields comprised science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) are relational in nature (English & Halford, 1995). Indeed, mathematics is in essence a system of patterns and relations (Devlin, 2012). It has been argued that the end goal of education is to foster the development of abstract relational schemas that can be applied flexibly in diverse situations (Goldwater & Schalk, 2016). For example, if a student learns how to analyze the structure of an argument in a philosophy class, but later fails to apply that knowledge to political arguments, their education has in an important sense failed. An analogy can provide a means of acquiring a relational schema, and may be particularly helpful when the target domain cannot be directly perceived—perhaps because it is too small (submicroscopic particles), too large (plate tectonics), or too abstract (the human mind). A well-conceived analogy has the ability to relate difficult-to-visualize constructs to a more tangible, imageable realm. Metaphors, although not always based directly on analogical reasoning, serve similar functions (Holyoak, 2019; Holyoak & Stamenkovic, 2018).
中文讲解
本段完成的是从"类比是什么"到"为什么教学需要类比"的跃迁,分四步推进。
第一步用范围扩展来奠定前提:STEM 乃至所有正式与实践学科所教的概念,在本质上都是关系型的(relational in nature)。作者通过括号插入"including but not restricted to STEM",把这一论断从理工科扩展到人文社科,避免读者把它误读为"只有理工科才需要类比"。
第二步用"indeed"进一步收紧到数学:数学本质上是模式与关系的系统。这呼应了 P0006 关于"类比的核心是关系模式"的论断,把数学定位为关系型学科的典型代表,从而为"数学教学中类比特别重要"埋伏笔。
第三步把教育目标拔高到"抽象关系图式"(abstract relational schemas)的灵活迁移能力,并以哲学论证分析→政治论证分析的反例做说明:如果学生学到的关系结构不能跨情境迁移,教育在重要意义上是失败的。这个反例不是用来说明类比本身,而是用来说明关系图式的可迁移性是教育的成败判据——而类比正是获取这种图式的手段。
第四步是核心论点:类比在目标领域"不可直接感知"时尤为有效。作者列出三种不可感知情境:太小(亚微观粒子)、太大(板块构造)、太抽象(人类心智)。这一三分法把类比的必要性从"教师偏好"提升为"知觉限制下的唯一可行路径"。“too small / too large / too abstract"对应三种不同的认知障碍,类比通过把不可视结构映射到可想象的源域来克服它们。
段末把隐喻纳入同一功能范畴,并加限定"not always based directly on analogical reasoning”——隐喻有时只是语言修辞,不必经过严格的结构映射,但功能上仍服务于"把抽象结构接入可想象域"。这一收束把本节从严格类比扩展到更宽的认知工具,为后续章节留出余地。
本段在 S1.2 中的位置:它把 P0006 的定义和 P0007 的限定,放进了一个更大的教育哲学论证里——关系图式是教育目标,类比是获取图式的手段,教学场景中的不可感知性是类比不可或缺的理由。
补充说明
本段的关键新术语是 relational schema(关系图式),指跨情境可迁移的抽象关系结构,与 P0006 的 relational role / relational pattern 在层次上不同:前者是学习者在多次类比中内化出的高层结构,后者是单次类比中的对应关系。STEM 缩写在本段被括注展开为 science, technology, engineering, and mathematics。段中四组文献(English & Halford, 1995; Devlin, 2012; Goldwater & Schalk, 2016; Holyoak, 2019; Holyoak & Stamenkovic, 2018)仅作为支撑性引用,本节未展开其内容。
脚注 / 边栏 / 图表 / 附加信息(如有)
本节包含一处对 Figure 1 的引用(P0006),用于展示厨房/细胞类比中源与目标的关系结构与映射,其具体图形需查看原图。
本节所有文献引用均以括注形式出现,未单列脚注;这些引用在文中仅作为支撑性来源,不构成本节论证的独立分支。
无其他图表、边栏或脚注。
💡 本节核心要点
- 类比的本体不是元素相似,而是关系模式(特别是因果关系)的共享;元素本身可以不同。
- 教学类比总是 source(熟悉、具体)→ target(新颖、难解)的单向映射;映射的依据是关系角色的相似,而非实体表面的相似。
- 源类比几乎不可能完美覆盖目标的所有关系,因此类比的有效性依赖于教师对局限的自觉以及对"最重要关系"的选择性凸显。
- 许多学科(不限于 STEM)的概念在本质上是关系型的,数学本身就是模式与关系的系统,因此关系结构的迁移能力被视为教育的关键目标。
- 类比在目标领域不可直接感知(太小、太大、太抽象)时尤为必要,它把不可视结构映射到可想象域以实现教学。
- 隐喻虽不必经过严格的类比推理,但在功能上与类比同源——都服务于把抽象结构接入可想象的表征。
🔑 关键术语
- Analogy(类比):在本节中定义为两个情境共享组成元素之间的关系模式(通常包括因果关系)的情形,元素本身可以不同;类比通过关系层面的相似实现源到目标的解释性映射。
- Source analog(源类比):类比中较熟悉、具体、可理解的一方,其作用是照亮目标;学习者需先理解源为何如此行为,再把这种理解迁移到目标。
- Target analog(目标类比):类比中相对新颖、难解或不可直接感知的一方,是教学需要解释的对象;其结构通过与源的关系映射得到说明。
- Mapping(映射):基于关系角色相似性,在源与目标实体之间建立的一套系统性对应;其依据是实体所扮演的关系角色,而非实体本身属性的相似。
- Relational schema(关系图式):在多次类比中内化出来的、可跨情境灵活迁移的抽象关系结构;本节把它定位为教育的关键目标,类比则是获取这一图式的手段。
- STEM:Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics 的缩写;本节指出 STEM 是关系型概念的典型领域,但强调类比的必要性不限于 STEM。
S1.3 [描述性拆分] Journal Information and Figure 1 Caption
第1段(P0009)
原文复述
MIND, BRAIN, AND EDUCATION
中文讲解
这是期刊的名称/标识,“MIND, BRAIN, AND EDUCATION"是发表本文的期刊全名。它并非正文内容,而是期刊的版头信息,表明本文属于该期刊的范畴。
第2段(P0010)
原文复述
1University of California, Los Angeles
中文讲解
脚注1的内容,标明作者所属机构为加州大学洛杉矶分校(University of California, Los Angeles)。这是作者单位信息,不是正文。
第3段(P0011)
原文复述
Address correspondence to Maureen E. Gray, Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, 405 Hilgard Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90095-1563; e-mail: maureengray@ucla.edu
中文讲解
通讯作者信息:联系人为Maureen E. Gray,所属加州大学洛杉矶分校心理学系,地址为405 Hilgard Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90095-1563,邮箱为maureengray@ucla.edu。这表明论文的通讯作者是Maureen E. Gray。
第4段(P0012)
原文复述
© 2021 International Mind, Brain, and Education Society and Wiley Periodicals LLC.
中文讲解
版权信息:本文版权归2021年国际Mind, Brain, and Education学会与Wiley Periodicals LLC共同所有。这是一篇发表于2021年的论文,由该学会与Wiley合作出版。
第5段(P0013)
原文复述
Volume 15—Number 3
中文讲解
期刊卷期信息:第15卷,第3期。这是期刊出版信息的版头标记。
第6段(P0014)
原文复述
中文讲解
图1的图注:展示了餐厅厨房(源域)与细胞(目标域)之间类比的可视化呈现,对应元素以相同的颜色绘制,绘图者为Caryn Gray。这是论文的核心教学示例之一——用餐厅厨房类比细胞结构。该图占据第2页开头的位置,用于在正文正式展开前直观展示"源—目标类比"的视觉对照策略。需查看原图以确认具体对应关系。
补充说明
该图出现在ANALOGICAL PROBLEM SOLVING小节起始位置之前,作为图2-图4所讨论原则(颜色编码、空间对齐、对应关系可视化)的具体示例。
第7段(P0015)
原文复述
ANALOGICAL PROBLEM SOLVING
中文讲解
小节标题"类比问题解决”。这是论文第一个主小节的标题,开启了对类比推理在认知科学中经典研究及其对教育意义的讨论。
第8段(P0016)
原文复述
Modern work on the use of analogy to solve problems and learn causal structure began with studies by Gick and
中文讲解
句意:现代关于用类比来解决问题和学习因果结构的研究始于Gick和Holyoak的工作。文本在此处跨页,被截断,下一段继续承接。
第9段(P0017)
原文复述
Holyoak (1980, 1983). These investigators asked college students to role-play solving a medical problem (drawn from Gestalt psychology; Duncker, 1945) in which a doctor is faced with a patient suffering from a malignant stomach tumor. The tumor is inoperable, and the patient will die unless it is destroyed. There is a kind of ray that will destroy the tumor if the rays reach it at a high intensity. But unfortunately, such high-intensity rays will also destroy the healthy tissue they pass through on the way to the tumor. At lower intensities the rays will not damage the healthy tissue, but neither will they remove the tumor. How can the doctor use rays to destroy the tumor, while at the same time sparing the healthy tissue?
中文讲解
作者指出,Gick与Holyoak(1980, 1983)的早期研究让大学生角色扮演解决一个医学问题(取自格式塔心理学Duncker, 1945):医生面对一名恶性胃肿瘤患者,肿瘤无法手术切除,除非被摧毁否则患者必死。一种射线若以高强度抵达肿瘤可摧毁它,但同样会损伤沿途健康组织;低强度射线虽不伤健康组织,却无法去除肿瘤。医生如何在不伤健康组织的前提下用射线摧毁肿瘤?这就是著名的"Duncker辐射问题",是类比推理实验中的经典靶问题。
补充说明
Duncker(1945)的辐射问题是认知科学中研究问题解决和类比迁移的经典靶问题,其结构是"单一强作用会破坏中间环节,需用多重弱作用汇聚解决"。
第10段(P0018)
原文复述
Gick and Holyoak provided some of their participants with a story in advance of the tumor problem. The story was introduced in the context of what was ostensibly a different task—people were asked to memorize it or write a brief summary. One version of the story, called “The General”, described how a general captured a fortress located in the middle of a county by dividing his army into small groups and dispatching each group simultaneously down a different road (where the roads, like spokes on a wheel, all led to the fortress). Viewed as an educational intervention, it is important to note that the General story was not an actual situation with which participants were previously acquainted. Rather, it was deliberately constructed by the experimenters to provide a close analogical match to the tumor problem. Just as the general employed small converging groups of soldiers to cross safely to the fortress and capture it, the doctor could use several ray machines positioned around the patient to direct multiple low-intensity rays at the tumor, simultaneously. The key idea is that each beam will pass harmlessly through healthy tissue, but the converging weak rays will summate at the focal point of the tumor, destroying it.
中文讲解
作者说明:Gick与Holyoak在向被试呈现靶问题之前,让部分被试先读一个看似无关任务的源故事(即要求他们记忆或写摘要)。其中一个版本叫"将军"故事——将军率军攻打位于某郡中央的堡垒,把军队分成小组沿不同道路同时出发(道路像车轮辐条一样汇聚到堡垒)。需要强调的是,将军故事并非参与者事先熟悉的真实情境,而是实验者刻意构造、与辐射问题高度类比匹配的故事。正如将军用多路小组士兵安全抵达并攻陷堡垒,医生可以围绕患者布置多台射线机同时发射多束低强度射线聚焦于肿瘤。核心思想是:每束射线无害地穿过健康组织,但多束弱射线汇聚于肿瘤焦点即可摧毁肿瘤。这就是"汇聚解"(convergence solution)的类比来源。
补充说明
“将军"故事与"辐射问题"构成"源—目标"对,二者的对应结构(小股力量从多路汇聚到一个中心目标)是该实验设计的核心自变量。
第11段(P0019)
原文复述
Volume 15—Number 3
中文讲解
期刊版头:第15卷,第3期。
第12段(P0020)
原文复述
1751228x, 2021, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.12288 by Indiana University Bloomington, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
中文讲解
这是Wiley Online Library提供的下载与版权声明信息,说明本文由印第安纳大学布卢明顿分校的用户于2026年12月8日从Wiley在线图书馆下载,DOI为10.1111/mbe.12288;并提示OA文章遵循相应的Creative Commons许可协议。属于期刊的页脚/版权版面元素。
第13段(P0021)
原文复述
It is not easy to come up with this “convergence” solution (which is actually quite similar to standard medical practice for radiation therapy) without the aid of an analogy. As shown in Figure 2, only about 10% of the students generated this solution in the absence of the General story (dotted horizontal line). When the students read the story just prior to working on the tumor problem, roughly 30 % more of them generated the convergence problem spontaneously. That is, these students noticed that the General story was relevant and used it to solve the problem. When the experimenters followed up with a simple cue that “the story you read earlier might give some hints,” another 30 % succeeded in finding the convergence solution. The overall picture we obtain from these experiments is of a glass half full or half empty—a substantial proportion of people spontaneously used the source analog to solve the problem, though about as many initially failed to notice its relevance (yet often succeeded later when given a hint).
中文讲解
作者指出:没有类比辅助,人们很难想出"汇聚解”(它其实非常接近现实中放射治疗的标准做法)。如图2所示:在没有将军故事的情况下,仅约10%的学生能独立生成此解(图中虚线水平线);若在解题前先读将军故事,自发生成汇聚解的比例提高约30个百分点——这些学生主动注意到了将军故事的相关性并加以利用;若实验者进一步给出"你之前读的故事可能给出提示"的线索,又多出约30%的学生成功找到汇聚解。整体来看,结果是"半满半空的杯子"——相当比例的被试能自发使用源类比解决问题,但几乎同等比例的人起初注意不到其相关性(但通常在提示后仍能成功)。作者用"半满/半空"的比喻呈现这种两面性。
补充说明
Gick与Holyoak的三种条件(无源故事、自发迁移、提示后迁移)分别约10%、40%、70%的成功率为类比迁移的研究奠定了基准数据。
第14段(P0022)
原文复述
The basic findings from Gick and Holyoak (1980, 1983), coupled with later extensions of this work (Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989; Holyoak, Junn, & Billman, 1984; Holyoak & Koh, 1987; Keane, 1988), provide a theoretical framework for understanding how analogies can be used in education. As illustrated in Figure 3, analogical problem solving involves several major components (Holyoak, Novick, & Melz, 1994). Once the source analog has been accessed (either spontaneously or after a cue to consider it), key elements of the two analogs can be mapped to generate correspondences among the elements. Critically, these correspondences are largely based on matches between relations that are in some sense causal (cf. Holyoak, Lee, & Lu, 2010; Schank & Abelson, 1977)—functionally relevant to the dynamic changes that occur within each analog. The general and the doctor have similar goals, which provide their choices of actions; in each situation states or actions (dividing the troops, finding multiple ray machines) enable or prevent subsequent actions, which cause state changes (capturing the fortress, destroying the tumor).
中文讲解
作者论述:Gick与Holyoak的基本发现加上后续扩展研究(Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989; Holyoak, Junn, & Billman, 1984; Holyoak & Koh, 1987; Keane, 1988),为理解类比在教育中的应用提供了理论框架。如图3所示,类比问题解决包含若干主要成分(Holyoak, Novick, & Melz, 1994)。一旦源类比被调取(自发或线索触发后),两个类比的关键元素就能被映射以产生对应关系。关键在于,这些对应关系主要基于某种因果性关系的匹配(参见Holyoak, Lee, & Lu, 2010; Schank & Abelson, 1977)——即在功能上与各自情境中动态变化相关。将军与医生有相似目标,这些目标决定了他们的行动选择;在两种情境中,状态或行动(分兵、寻找多台射线机)促成或阻止后续行动,这些后续行动又引起状态变化(攻陷堡垒、摧毁肿瘤)。
补充说明
本段引入了"结构映射理论"的因果变体:对应关系不是基于表面特征,而是基于因果/功能关系。这是Holyoak团队理论框架的核心主张。
第15段(P0023)
原文复述
Once a mapping has been established between source and target, the problem solver can infer a novel solution to the target problem by creating a new idea (“apply converging weak rays”) based on information initially provided by the source alone (“send small groups down many roads”). Finally, in the aftermath of exploring the analogy it is possible to learn something new, by forming a more abstract relational schema that captures the commonalities between the source and target: roughly, when a large force cannot be safely applied to a centrally located object, apply multiple converging small forces instead. Repeated examples that fit a common analogical schema will set up a positive feedback loop—people find it easier and easier to spontaneously apply the schema to additional examples (Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989; Gentner, Loewenstein, & Thompson, 2003). Schema induction (Gick & Holyoak, 1983) is the basic mechanism by which analogy can foster flexible transfer and generalization of knowledge. Critically with respect to its role in education, analogy can be used as device to teach the causal structure of novel problems not only for adults, but also for children as young as preschool age (Brown, Kane, & Echols, 1986; Holyoak et al., 1984).
中文讲解
作者说明:一旦建立了源—目标映射,问题解决者就可以基于源所提供的信息(“沿多条道路分兵”)为目标问题推断出新颖的解决方案(“应用汇聚弱射线”)。最后,在探索类比之后,还可以通过形成一种更抽象的关系图式来学到新东西,该图式捕捉了源与目标的共性——大致而言:当一股大力量不能安全地施加于一个中心物体时,改用多股汇聚的小力量取而代之。多次符合同一类比图式的例子会形成正反馈——人们越来越容易自发地将该图式应用到新例子上(Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989; Gentner, Loewenstein, & Thompson, 2003)。图式归纳(Gick & Holyoak, 1983)是类比促进知识灵活迁移和概括的基本机制。就其在教育中的角色而言,关键的是:类比不仅能用于教成人,还能用于教幼儿(如学龄前儿童)新问题的因果结构(Brown, Kane, & Echols, 1986; Holyoak et al., 1984)。
补充说明
本段提出了"图式归纳"作为类比促进迁移的核心机制,并指出该机制对不同年龄段(从学龄前到成人)都有效。
第16段(P0024)
原文复述
Volume 15—Number 3
中文讲解
期刊版头:第15卷,第3期。
第17段(P0025)
原文复述
175.1228x, 2021, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.12288 by Indiana University Bloomington, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
中文讲解
Wiley在线图书馆下载与版权声明:本文由印第安纳大学布卢明顿分校的用户于2026年12月8日下载,DOI 10.1111/mbe.12288,OA文章遵循相应Creative Commons许可。
第18段(P0026)
原文复述
中文讲解
图3图注:以Gick与Holyoak(1980, 1983)的将军故事与辐射问题为例,展示了类比推理与学习中涉及的主要过程。经Holyoak(2019)许可转载。该图位于第4页,是P0022-P0023所述"类比问题解决主要成分"(映射、推断、图式归纳)的可视化对应。
补充说明
此图是P0022-P0023理论阐述的图示化总结,需查看原图才能确认"调取—映射—推断—图式归纳"各环节的具体表征。
第19段(P0027)
原文复述
It is important to emphasize the central role of causal relations (as opposed to arbitrary relations unrelated to goals or important outcomes) in the educational use of analogies. Consider the analogy between water waves and sound waves (the earliest major scientific analogy, dating from the era of imperial Rome). The concrete source analog of water waves provides a deeper understanding of sound. Sound is analogous to water waves in that sound exhibits a pattern of behavior corresponding to that of water waves: propagating across space with diminishing intensity, passing around small barriers, rebounding off large barriers, and so on. Perceptual features and non-causal relations are very different (water makes objects wet upon contact, air does not), but the underlying pattern of causal relations among the elements is similar.
中文讲解
作者强调:在教育的类比使用中,因果关系(而非与目标或重要结果无关的任意关系)扮演核心角色。举例而言:水波与声波的类比(最早的重大科学类比,可追溯到罗马帝国时代)。具体的水波源类比对声学提供了更深的理解。声波类比于水波之处在于,声波表现出与水波对应的行为模式:在空间传播时强度衰减、绕开小障碍物、反弹回大障碍物等。感知特征和非因果关系差异很大(水接触物体会弄湿物体,空气不会),但元素间的因果关系模式相似。
补充说明
此例用来说明"类比中重要的是因果/功能关系的一致,而非表面特征的相似"——这是P0028将进一步论述的核心观点。
第20段(P0028)
原文复述
In this example, like most analogies involving empirical phenomena, the key functional relations involve causes and their effects. By transferring knowledge about causal relations, the analogy provides a new explanation of why various phenomena occur. In general, analogical thinking is guided by the pragmatic goals of the reasoner (Holland, Holyoak, Nisbett, & Thagard, 1989; Holyoak, 1985; Holyoak & Thagard, 1989), which direct attention to relevant causal relations (Spellman & Holyoak, 1996). For example, people are more likely to base analogical inferences on the relation “A causes B” than on the formally comparable but not non-causal relation “A occurs before B” (Lassaline, 1996). Moreover, humans have specialized mechanisms for reasoning about cause-effect relations (for a review see Holyoak & Cheng, 2011), and these directly impact analogical transfer. In particular, people naturally distinguish between generative causes (which tend to make something happen) and preventive causes (which tend to stop something from happening), and treat the two types of causes differently when drawing analogical inferences (Holyoak, Lee, & Lu, 2010; Lee & Holyoak, 2008; for a review see Holyoak & Lee, 2017).
中文讲解
作者论述:在水波—声波这类例子中,与多数涉及经验现象的类比一样,关键的功能关系是因果关系及其结果。通过迁移因果关系的知识,类比能提供关于各种现象为何发生的新解释。一般而言,类比思维受推理者务实目标的引导(Holland, Holyoak, Nisbett, & Thagard, 1989; Holyoak, 1985; Holyoak & Thagard, 1989),这些目标把注意力引向相关的因果关系(Spellman & Holyoak, 1996)。例如,人们更可能基于"A导致B"的关系而非形式上可比但非因果的"A先于B发生"做出类比推理(Lassaline, 1996)。此外,人类具有推理因果关系的专门机制(综述见Holyoak & Cheng, 2011),这些机制直接影响类比迁移。具体而言,人们自然区分生成性原因(倾向于让某事发生)和预防性原因(倾向于阻止某事发生),并在进行类比推理时对这两种原因采取不同处理(Holyoak, Lee, & Lu, 2010; Lee & Holyoak, 2008;综述见Holyoak & Lee, 2017)。
补充说明
本段引入了"生成性原因 vs. 预防性原因"的区分,这是Holyoak团队关于因果类比推理的精细化主张之一。
第21段(P0029)
原文复述
Volume 15—Number 3
中文讲解
期刊版头:第15卷,第3期。
第22段(P0030)
原文复述
175.128x, 2021, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.12288 by Indiana University Bloomington, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
中文讲解
Wiley在线图书馆下载与版权声明。
第23段(P0031)
原文复述
OBSTACLES TO SUCCESSFUL TEACHING BY ANALOGY
中文讲解
小节标题"成功类比教学的障碍"。这是论文第二个主小节,承前文提出类比教育应用的理论框架后,转向讨论其潜在的困难与限制。
第24段(P0032)
原文复述
Although a comprehensive review of the benefits of incorporating analogical reasoning in STEM education is beyond the scope of this article, positive impacts on learning outcomes have been robustly demonstrated (see Alfieri, Nokes-Malach, & Schunn, 2013, for a more thorough review). For example, analogical comparison of physics concepts increases far transfer (Nokes-Malach, VanLehn, Belenky, Lichtenstein, & Cox, 2013), and several studies have shown that including analogies in science texts increases comprehension of the scientific material in question and its causal relational structure (Braasch & Goldman, 2010; Clement & Yanowitz, 2003; Jaeger & Wiley, 2015). In the domain of mathematics, it has been shown that analogical comparison of worked examples illustrating proportionality improves performance on test problems and reduces common misconceptions (Begolli & Richland, 2016).
中文讲解
作者论述:尽管对STEM教育中纳入类比推理的益处进行全面综述超出本文范围,但正向影响已经被稳健证明(更详细的综述见Alfieri, Nokes-Malach, & Schunn, 2013)。例如,物理概念的类比比较能促进远迁移(Nokes-Malach, VanLehn, Belenky, Lichtenstein, & Cox, 2013);多项研究表明,在科学文本中加入类比能增进对相应科学材料及其因果关系结构的理解(Braasch & Goldman, 2010; Clement & Yanowitz, 2003; Jaeger & Wiley, 2015)。在数学领域,已证明对展示比例性的例题进行类比比较能提高测试问题表现并减少常见误解(Begolli & Richland, 2016)。
补充说明
本段提供了类比在STEM(物理、数学、科学文本)中已有实证支持的概览,为下文讨论"障碍"提供了对照基线。
第25段(P0033)
原文复述
While the learning outcomes associated with including analogies in learning opportunities are typically positive, the approach is not without its potential pitfalls. Students in any classroom are not uniform. They do not come to a learning opportunity with the same expectations, prior knowledge, or cognitive resources, and this variability in student populations undoubtedly affects the efficacy of any proposed educational interventions. Previous research has implicated executive functions (e.g., working memory and inhibitory control) in analogical reasoning (Cho et al., 2010; Cho, Holyoak, & Cannon, 2007; Gray & Holyoak, 2020; Hummel & Holyoak, 1997, 2003; Kubricht, Lu, & Holyoak, 2017; Tohill & Holyoak, 2000; Waltz, Lau, Grewal, & Holyoak, 2000) and in academic achievement (Campos, Almeida, Ferreira, Martinez, & Ramalho, 2013). Students with fewer cognitive resources may be less able to benefit from analogies in educational settings. In fact, some research suggests that less able students may even be harmed by the presence of analogies in educational material (Jaeger & Wiley, 2015; Zook & Maier, 1994).
中文讲解
作者说明:尽管在学习机会中纳入类比通常带来正向结果,但该方法并非没有潜在陷阱。课堂上的学生并不统一,他们带着不同的期望、先备知识和认知资源进入学习情境,这种学生群体的异质性无疑会影响任何教育干预的有效性。先前研究已将执行功能(如工作记忆和抑制控制)牵涉到类比推理中(Cho et al., 2010; Cho, Holyoak, & Cannon, 2007; Gray & Holyoak, 2020; Hummel & Holyoak, 1997, 2003; Kubricht, Lu, & Holyoak, 2017; Tohill & Holyoak, 2000; Waltz, Lau, Grewal, & Holyoak, 2000)以及学业成就中(Campos et al., 2013)。认知资源较少的学生在教育情境中从类比中获益的可能性较低。事实上,一些研究显示,能力较低的学生甚至可能因教育材料中存在类比而受到伤害(Jaeger & Wiley, 2015; Zook & Maier, 1994)。
补充说明
本段提出"个体认知资源差异"是类比教学的核心障碍,并指出对低能力学生而言类比甚至可能有害。
第26段(P0034)
原文复述
The difficulty inherent in learning relational concepts can be compounded by ineffective teaching techniques that fail to highlight the structural nature of STEM concepts. Compared to K-12 instructors in Japan and Hong Kong, American mathematics instructors do not effectively highlight the conceptual structure of mathematics and connections between mathematics concepts (Richland, Zur, & Holyoak, 2007). Given that for semantically distant analogies, novices often do not notice relational similarity spontaneously (Gick & Holyoak, 1980), they may fail to attend to the causal structure that defines STEM concepts and relations among them without instructional guidance.
中文讲解
作者论述:学习关系概念的内在困难可能被低效的教学技术所加剧——这些教学未能突出STEM概念的结构性本质。与日本和香港的K-12教师相比,美国的数学教师并未有效突出数学的概念结构以及数学概念之间的联系(Richland, Zur, & Holyoak, 2007)。鉴于在语义距离远的类比中,新手常常不能自发注意到关系相似性(Gick & Holyoak, 1980),他们在缺乏教学引导的情况下可能会无法关注到定义STEM概念及其相互关系的因果结构。
补充说明
此段将"教学技术低效"与"教师未突出概念结构"联系起来,引出后文关于"突出共享结构"等教学原则。
第27段(P0035)
原文复述
Because executive functions are correlated significantly with academic achievement (Campos et al., 2013), students with fewer cognitive resources at their disposal are already at a significant disadvantage in most educational settings. The learning capabilities of these students should not be discounted, however, as some studies have shown that children who receive low scores on figural analogy tests have similar potential for learning as children with higher scores (Touw, Vogelaar, Verdel, Bakker, & Resing, 2017). Furthermore, if insufficient executive functioning is the root of problem, educational analogical interventions can be designed to lessen the cognitive load on the reasoner (e.g., Begolli & Richland, 2016; Richland et al., 2007; Richland & McDonough, 2010).
中文讲解
作者说明:由于执行功能与学业成就显著相关(Campos et al., 2013),认知资源较少的学生在大多数教育情境中已处于显著劣势。然而,不应低估这些学生的学习能力——一些研究显示,在图形类比测试中得分较低的儿童与得分较高的儿童具有相似的学习潜力(Touw et al., 2017)。此外,若执行功能不足是问题的根源,可以设计教育类比干预以减轻推理者的认知负荷(例如Begolli & Richland, 2016; Richland et al., 2007; Richland & McDonough, 2010)。
补充说明
本段为下一小节"五项原则"提供了转折:尽管存在障碍,但低能力学生的潜力不应被低估,且干预可减轻认知负荷。
第28段(P0036)
原文复述
AN ANALOGICAL APPROACH TO TEACHING: FIVE PRINCIPLES
中文讲解
小节标题"类比教学法:五项原则"。这是论文第三个主小节,正式提出五项基于认知心理学和认知神经科学研究的教学原则。
第29段(P0037)
原文复述
Here we sketch an analogical approach to teaching based on a set of principles drawn from research in cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience. The principles are summarized in Table 1. The analogical approach provides a theoretically motivated and empirically supported framework within which instructors can devise their own specific interventions to maximize the utility of analogy in education. The current recommendations build upon previous guides to analogical teaching (see, for example Treagust, Harrison, & Venville, 1998; Vendetti, Matlen, Richland, & Bunge, 2015). Here we consolidate techniques that serve the same general instructional goals, propose additional methods to incorporate analogy into classrooms, and highlight the importance of considering limitations in students’ cognitive resources. The principles we describe here are not intended to constitute an exhaustive set, but they all serve to highlight causal relations that are crucial to learning and transfer, particularly in STEM fields.
中文讲解
作者论述:我们在此勾勒出一种基于认知心理学和认知神经科学研究成果的教学类比法。这些原则汇总于表1。该方法提供了一个理论驱动、实证支持的教学框架,让教师可以设计自己的具体干预,最大化类比在教育中的效用。当前的建议建立在先前类比教学指南的基础上(如Treagust, Harrison, & Venville, 1998; Vendetti, Matlen, Richland, & Bunge, 2015)。我们整合了服务于共同教学目标的技术,提出了将类比融入课堂的新方法,并强调考虑学生认知资源限制的重要性。这里描述的原则并非穷尽性的,但都旨在突出对学习和迁移(尤其在STEM领域)至关重要的因果关系。
补充说明
此段明确了本文的写作目的:综合已有类比教学指南、提出新方法、强调认知资源限制。
第30段(P0038)
原文复述
One of the strengths of the analogical approach is its flexibility. It is not a prescription for a specific educational intervention, or a call for instructors to drastically alter their teaching style. Rather, the analogical approach provides a set of principles to guide instructors as they make changes (perhaps quite modest) to the way in which they present material to their students. Here we will review each principle and an example of its application separately, but the components should be applied in tandem whenever appropriate.
中文讲解
作者说明:类比法的优势之一在于其灵活性。它不是对特定教育干预的处方,也不是要求教师大幅改变教学风格。相反,类比法提供一套原则,指导教师在向学生呈现材料的方式上做出(可能很微小的)调整。这里我们将分别讨论每项原则及其应用示例,但这些组成部分应在适当时候联合使用。
补充说明
此段明确了五项原则的呈现方式:分别讨论但鼓励联合应用。
第31段(P0039)
原文复述
Capitalize on Prior Knowledge
中文讲解
小节标题(原则1):“利用先备知识”。这是五项原则中的第一项,强调通过类比激活学生已有知识以理解新内容。
第32段(P0040)
原文复述
Analogies allow learners to use prior knowledge to better understand an unfamiliar topic. Teaching by analogy is useful when an imbalance in knowledge exists, and the reasoner can draw on prior knowledge of a source domain to aid in understanding an unfamiliar target domain. The positive effect of relevant prior knowledge on learning is well documented (Chiesi, Spilich, & Voss, 1979; McNamara &
中文讲解
作者论述:类比使学习者能利用先备知识更好地理解不熟悉的话题。当存在知识不平衡时,类比教学尤为有效——推理者可借助对源域的先备知识来理解不熟悉的目标域。相关先备知识对学习的正向影响已有充分记录(Chiesi, Spilich, & Voss, 1979; McNamara & Kintsch, 1996)。文本在此处跨页被截断,下一段继续承接。
第33段(P0041)
原文复述
Volume 15—Number 3
中文讲解
期刊版头:第15卷,第3期。
第34段(P0042)
原文复述
1751228x, 2021, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.12288 by Indiana University Bloomington, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
中文讲解
Wiley在线图书馆下载与版权声明。
第35段(P0043)
原文复述
Table 1
中文讲解
表1标题:表格名为"Table 1"。这是紧接着表1标题的标识,本身只是一个表格标记。
第36段(P0044)
原文复述
Summary of Principles for Analogical Approach to Teaching
中文讲解
表1说明文字:“类比教学法原则总结”。这是表1标题下的副标题/导语,说明该表是对类比教学五项原则的汇总。
第37段(P0045)
原文复述
- Use well-understood source analogs to capitalize on prior knowledge. Explain correspondences fully.
中文讲解
表1原则1:使用理解充分的源类比以利用先备知识,并充分解释对应关系。这是五项原则中的第一条,与P0040-P0059讨论的"Capitalize on Prior Knowledge"小节对应。
第38段(P0046)
原文复述
- Highlight shared causal structure among examples of a structurally defined category using visuospatial, gestural, and verbal supports.
中文讲解
表1原则2:使用视觉空间、手势和言语支持,凸显结构化定义范畴中各例子之间的共享因果结构。这是与后文"Highlight Shared Structure"小节对应的第二条原则。
第39段(P0047)
原文复述
- Explain correspondences between semantic information and mathematical operations. Discuss conceptual meaning of mathematical operations.
中文讲解
表1原则3:解释语义信息与数学运算之间的对应关系,讨论数学运算的概念含义。这是与后文"Explain the Connections between Semantic Information and Mathematical Operations"小节对应的第三条原则。
第40段(P0048)
原文复述
- Use presentation style to facilitate comparison and reduce cognitive load of comparison process when appropriate.
中文讲解
表1原则4:在适当情况下,使用呈现方式以促进比较并减轻比较过程的认知负荷。这是与后文"Consider Cognitive Load"小节对应的第四条原则。
第41段(P0049)
原文复述
- Once students have some proficiency with the material, encourage generation of inferences.
中文讲解
表1原则5:学生在对材料有一定熟练度后,鼓励生成推论。这是与后文"Encourage Generation of Inferences"小节对应的第五条原则。
第42段(P0050)
原文复述
Kintsch, 1996). In general, prior knowledge alters the encoding of new knowledge (Boshuizen & Schmidt, 2008; Gobet & Simon, 1996; Kimball & Holyoak, 2000). Grasping that some new material is analogous to something already known allows the reasoner to fit corresponding elements of the target material into roles and relations that are already stored in memory, thereby aiding comprehension (Bean, Searles, Singer, & Cowen, 1990). The powerful ability to draw analogical inferences can guide scientific发现 and improve understanding (Holyoak & Thagard, 1995; Yanowitz, 2001). Further, using a familiar real-world experience as a source analog may increase student motivation, as the analogy provides an example of the application and relevance of classroom content (Duit, 1991). Effective source analogs are not only familiar but also relatively concrete, a property associated with richer and more distributed neural representations (Binder, 2016).
中文讲解
作者论述:通常,先备知识会改变新知识的编码(Boshuizen & Schmidt, 2008; Gobet & Simon, 1996; Kimball & Holyoak, 2000)。意识到某些新材料类比于已知事物,使推理者能将目标材料的对应元素安置于记忆中已有的角色和关系,从而促进理解(Bean et al., 1990)。强大的类比推理能力能引导科学发现并增进理解(Holyoak & Thagard, 1995; Yanowitz, 2001)。此外,使用熟悉的真实世界经验作为源类比可能提高学生动机,因为类比提供了课堂内容应用和相关性的实例(Duit, 1991)。有效的源类比不仅熟悉,而且相对具体——具体性与更丰富、更分布式的神经表征相关(Binder, 2016)。
补充说明
本段引入了"具体性"作为有效源类比的关键属性,并与神经表征的丰富度/分布式程度联系起来。
第43段(P0051)
原文复述
Reviews of science textbooks show that many textbook authors are sensitive to this characteristic of analogy. Approximately 90% of analogies found in a collection of college-level biochemistry textbooks related concrete source analogs to abstract target concepts (Orgill & Bodner, 2006). Several studies have used analogies in efforts to improve comprehension of a difficult-to-visualize concept (Baker & Lawson, 2001; Braasch & Goldman, 2010; Jaeger, Taylor, & Wiley, 2016). One study investigated the use of analogy to aid understanding of El Niño weather systems (Jaeger et al., 2016). Participants with low spatial reasoning abilities (i.e., those who would likely have the most trouble visualizing the large-scale, hard-to-visualize weather system) showed significant improvement in comprehension when they received a text drawing an analogy to a small scale, more easily imageable situation (letting the air out of a balloon). The benefit of analogy has also been demonstrated in classroom settings. College-level genetics students showed increased comprehension of abstract genetics concepts after receiving instructional analogies in comparison to students in the same course who did not receive analogies (Baker & Lawson, 2001).
中文讲解
作者论述:教科书综述显示许多教科书作者对类比的这一特性有所察觉。在一组大学生物化学教科书中,约90%的类比将具体源类比与抽象目标概念联系起来(Orgill & Bodner, 2006)。多项研究使用类比来改善难以可视化概念的理解(Baker & Lawson, 2001; Braasch & Goldman, 2010; Jaeger, Taylor, & Wiley, 2016)。一项研究考察了使用类比帮助理解厄尔尼诺天气系统(Jaeger et al., 2016)。空间推理能力较低的被试(即那些最可能难以可视化大规模、难想象天气系统的人)在接受一个将厄尔尼诺类比于一个更易想象的小尺度情境(给气球放气)的文本后,理解有显著提升。类比的好处也在课堂环境中得到证明。大学生遗传学课程中,接受教学类比的学生对抽象遗传学概念的理解比对未接受类比的同课程学生更高(Baker & Lawson, 2001)。
补充说明
本段提供了两项关键实证:Jaeger等(2016)的"放气球"类比帮助低空间能力者理解厄尔尼诺,Baker & Lawson(2001)的遗传学类比提高学生理解。
第44段(P0052)
原文复述
Although using analogy to capitalize on relevant prior knowledge can be helpful in many circumstances, instructors should keep several considerations in mind when applying this component of analogy to improve instruction. First, a student must possess the requisite prior knowledge in order to make use of it. Several studies have demonstrated that analogies are particularly helpful for individuals with a high level of prior knowledge (Braasch & Goldman, 2010; Jee et al., 2013; Rittle-Johnson, Star, & Durkin, 2009). Educators should not assume that all students have sufficient prior knowledge to benefit from an analogy discussed in class. This is especially true for classrooms that include students of mixed backgrounds, as what might seem to be common knowledge for a “typical” American-born student may not be common knowledge for all students.
中文讲解
作者论述:尽管在许多情形下使用类比来利用相关先备知识是有帮助的,但教师在应用该类比组成部分以改进教学时,应牢记若干考量。首先,学生必须具备必要的先备知识才能加以利用。多项研究表明,类比对于具有高水平先备知识的个体尤其有帮助(Braasch & Goldman, 2010; Jee et al., 2013; Rittle-Johnson, Star, & Durkin, 2009)。教育者不应假设所有学生都具备从课堂讨论的类比中受益的充分先备知识。对于包含不同背景学生的课堂尤其如此——对"典型的"美国本土学生看似常识的东西,对所有学生未必是常识。
补充说明
本段提出了"先备知识阈值"问题:高先备知识者从类比获益最多,但教师不应假设所有学生都有同等先备知识。
第45段(P0053)
原文复述
While it is not always easy to assess the prior knowledge of each student in a classroom, some strategies can address imbalance of prior knowledge. If time允许, prior knowledge can be gauged with pretests, which may contribute to better learning outcomes in their own right (Richland, Kornell, & Kao, 2009). In addition, the educator can ensure that all students possess a basic understanding of the source by explaining the source analog in full. In so doing, the educator can explicitly highlight the relevant (and salient but irrelevant) components of the source, informing students with low prior knowledge about important aspects of the source domain. Although research indicates that analogy is particularly beneficial for learners with high prior knowledge of the source (Braasch & Goldman, 2010; Jee et al., 2013), the “threshold” that must be met in order to benefit from analogical instruction may be fairly low (Rittle-Johnson et al., 2009).
中文讲解
作者说明:虽然评估课堂上每位学生的先备知识并非易事,但一些策略可应对先备知识的不平衡。如果时间允许,可以用前测来衡量先备知识,前测本身就有助于改善学习成果(Richland, Kornell, & Kao, 2009)。此外,教育者可以通过充分解释源类比来确保所有学生都对源有基本理解。这样做,教育者可以显式地突出源中相关的(以及显眼但无关的)成分,让先备知识较低的学生了解源域的重要方面。虽然研究表明类比对源具有高先备知识的学习者尤其有益(Braasch & Goldman, 2010; Jee et al., 2013),但要从类比教学中获益所必须达到的"门槛"可能相当低(Rittle-Johnson et al., 2009)。
补充说明
本段提供了应对先备知识不平衡的两条具体策略:使用前测、充分解释源类比。
第46段(P0054)
原文复述
In addition, if multiple source analogs are available, it may be useful to have students compare them to identify their commonalities (Gick & Holyoak, 1983; Loewenstein, Thompson, & Gentner, 2003). Recent work on teaching adolescents about climate change and complex systems suggests that presenting two source analogs may increase understanding of the source material and support greater transfer if the comparison among the analogs is sufficiently scaffolded (Jacobson et al., 2020).
中文讲解
作者论述:此外,如果有多个源类比可用,让学生比较它们以识别共性可能有用(Gick & Holyoak, 1983; Loewenstein, Thompson, & Gentner, 2003)。最近关于向青少年教授气候变化和复杂系统的工作表明,如果对类比之间的比较提供充分脚手架,则呈现两个源类比可能增进对源材料的理解并支持更广泛的迁移(Jacobson et al., 2020)。
补充说明
本段提出多源类比比较作为利用先备知识的进阶策略,以Jacobson等(2020)的气候变化教学为实证支持。
第47段(P0055)
原文复述
In addition, instructors should not assume that students know how to effectively utilize analogies, even if they have been identified by an instructor (Venville, Bryer, & Treagust, 1994). Simply stating a cell is analogous to a restaurant kitchen may leave some students uncertain about which aspects of the kitchen are like the cell and which aspects are not. To address this limitation, educators should take care to explain the source analog and its correspondences to the target concept fully. Another consideration is that novices may spontaneously focus on the target concept (because their goal as a learner is to understand it). However, mapping tends to be more accurate when it proceeds from the more coherent and well-understood source analog to the less well-understood target (Kubose, Holyoak, & Hummel, 2002). To facilitate successful use of prior knowledge, it is advisable to direct students’ attention first to the source analog.
中文讲解
作者说明:此外,教师不应假设学生知道如何有效利用类比,即使类比已被教师识别出来(Venville, Bryer, & Treagust, 1994)。仅说"细胞类比于餐厅厨房"可能让一些学生不确定厨房哪些方面像细胞、哪些方面不像。为应对这一局限,教育者应仔细解释源类比及其与目标概念的对应关系。另一个考量是,新手可能会自发关注目标概念(因为他们的学习目标是理解它)。然而,当映射从更连贯、更好理解的源类比向理解较少的目标推进时,映射往往更准确(Kubose, Holyoak, & Hummel, 2002)。为促进先备知识的成功利用,建议先将学生的注意力引向源类比。
补充说明
本段提出两条具体建议:(1)充分解释源类比;(2)从源到目标的方向进行映射。
第48段(P0056)
原文复述
1751228x, 2021, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.12288 by Indiana University Bloomington, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
中文讲解
Wiley在线图书馆下载与版权声明。
第49段(P0057)
原文复述
Volume 15—Number 3
中文讲解
期刊版头:第15卷,第3期。
第50段(P0058)
原文复述
Finally, in nearly all cases the analogy will not be perfect. Some aspects of the source analog may not have corresponding elements in the target concept, and thus should not be carried over to the target concept. In order to prevent inappropriate prior knowledge from producing misconceptions, instructors should explicitly map the relevant correspondences and point out the limits of the analogy—that is, which aspects of the source analog are irrelevant. When possible, the description of the source may be selectively tailored to optimize the analogical match with the target.
中文讲解
作者论述:最后,在几乎所有情形下类比都不会是完美的。源类比的某些方面可能在目标概念中没有对应元素,因此不应被迁移到目标概念。为防止不恰当的先备知识产生误解,教师应显式地映射相关对应关系,并指出类比的局限——即源类比中哪些方面是无关的。在可能的情况下,源的描述可以有选择地加以调整以优化与目标的类比匹配。
补充说明
本段引入了"类比不完美性"与"显式指出类比局限"作为利用先备知识原则的最后一条子要点。
第51段(P0059)
原文复述
A study by Bean et al. (1990) illustrates effective use of prior knowledge in analogical teaching. In this study, an analogy was utilized to introduce high school students to the structure and function of a cell and its parts. In the experimental analogy condition, researchers used a factory to model the difficult-to-visualize interrelationships among the components of a cell. The experimental condition utilized some components of the analogical approach. This condition included a pictorial illustration, a study guide indicating key elements, and explicit instruction in the mappings. For example, students were instructed that the cell’s mitochondria corresponded to the factory’s power plant, because both served the same function of providing energy to the system. This instruction effectively draws upon relevant prior knowledge, establishes the corresponding elements of the source and target, and emphasizes the functional relational similarities that define the analogy. On a subsequent test, students in the experimental condition outperformed a second group of students who did not receive the picture, a third group who received the study guide only, and a control group who read a textbook chapter about the cell and its functions.
中文讲解
作者说明:Bean等人(1990)的研究展示了在类比教学中有效利用先备知识。该研究使用类比向高中生介绍细胞及其各部分的结构与功能。在实验类比条件下,研究者用工厂来模拟细胞各成分之间难以可视化的相互关系。实验条件使用了类比法的若干组成部分:包括一张图示、一份指明关键内容的学习指南、以及对映射关系的显式教学。例如,学生被告知细胞的线粒体对应工厂的发电厂,因为两者都承担为系统提供能量的相同功能。这种教学有效地调用相关先备知识,建立源与目标之间的对应元素,并强调定义该类比的功能关系相似性。在随后的测试中,实验条件的学生表现优于未收到图片的第二组、仅收到学习指南的第三组,以及阅读关于细胞及其功能的教科书章节的对照组。
补充说明
本段将原则1"利用先备知识"落到Bean等(1990)的具体课堂实验上,细胞—工厂类比是高中生物学中的典型案例。
第52段(P0060)
原文复述
Highlight Shared Structure
中文讲解
小节标题(原则2):“突出共享结构”。这是五项原则中的第二项,强调通过对齐和类比比较将注意力引向各例子之间的关系性信息。
第53段(P0061)
原文复述
One of the most important uses of analogy in STEM education leverages alignment and analogical comparison to focus attention on shared relational information. If an instructor’s goal is to emphasize the shared structure that defines a concept, analogous examples of the concept can be aligned and compared. Research has demonstrated that analogical comparison increases attention to relations (Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989; Gentner & Markman, 1997; Gick & Holyoak, 1983; Goldwater & Gentner, 2015; Kotovsky & Gentner, 1996), and that alignment and analogical comparison of exemplars improves learning outcomes in STEM fields (Alfieri et al., 2013; Begolli & Richland, 2016; Gentner et al., 2016; Klein, Piacente-Cimini, & Williams, 2007; Nokes-Malach et al., 2013; Richland & McDonough, 2010).
中文讲解
作者论述:STEM教育中类比最重要的用途之一是利用对齐和类比比较将注意力聚焦于共享关系信息。若教师的目标是突出定义概念的共享结构,可对齐并比较该概念的类比例子。研究已证明类比比较能增进对关系的注意(Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989; Gentner & Markman, 1997; Gick & Holyoak, 1983; Goldwater & Gentner, 2015; Kotovsky & Gentner, 1996),且样例的对齐和类比比较能改善STEM领域的学习成果(Alfieri et al., 2013; Begolli & Richland, 2016; Gentner et al., 2016; Klein et al., 2007; Nokes-Malach et al., 2013; Richland & McDonough, 2010)。
补充说明
本段确立了原则2的理论基础:“对齐和类比比较"是突出共享结构的核心机制。
第54段(P0062)
原文复述
There is strong evidence that analogical reasoning is a resource-intensive process. Analogical processing relies on several constructs that comprise cognitive capacity, including fluid intelligence, working memory, inhibitory control, and spatial abilities (e.g., Krawczyk et al., 2008; Viskontas, Morrison, Holyoak, Hummel, & Knowlton, 2004; Waltz et al., 2000). Individuals with weaker cognitive capacity will have greater difficulty in reasoning by analogy and are less likely to benefit from it in educational settings (Jaeger & Wiley, 2015; Richland & McDonough, 2010).
中文讲解
作者论述:有强证据表明类比推理是高资源消耗过程。类比加工依赖若干构成认知能力的构念,包括流体智力、工作记忆、抑制控制和空间能力(Krawczyk et al., 2008; Viskontas et al., 2004; Waltz et al., 2000)。认知能力较弱的个体在类比推理方面会有更大困难,在教育情境中也不太可能从中受益(Jaeger & Wiley, 2015; Richland & McDonough, 2010)。
补充说明
此段再次强调"类比是高资源消耗过程”,为后文关于"减少认知负荷"的建议做铺垫。
第55段(P0063)
原文复述
These sources of individual variability must be taken into account when using analogy to highlight the shared structure among examples of a STEM concept. When analogical comparisons are introduced, they should be labeled as such to obviate the challenging process of noticing analogical similarity. Comparing examples highlights shared structure, but the presentation of the examples should facilitate comparison without overloading limited capacity resources. For example, shared structure can be communicated through visuospatial cues (Begolli & Richland, 2016; Matlen, Vosniadou, Jee, & Ptouchkina, 2011; Rittle-Johnson & Star, 2007). Simultaneous static presentation of exemplars frees up cognitive resources to devote to the comparison process and attend to the target material, obviating the need to hold both analogs in working memory at the same time.
中文讲解
作者说明:在使用类比突出STEM概念各例子间共享结构时,必须考虑这些个体差异源。当引入类比比较时,应明确将其标为类比比较,以省去学生注意类比相似性的困难过程。比较例子能突出共享结构,但例子的呈现应促进比较、不过度加载有限的认知资源。例如,共享结构可以通过视觉空间线索传达(Begolli & Richland, 2016; Matlen et al., 2011; Rittle-Johnson & Star, 2007)。样例同时静态呈现可释放认知资源用于比较过程并关注目标材料,省去同时在工作记忆中保持两个类比的需要。
补充说明
本段提出了三条具体策略:(1)显式标注为类比比较;(2)使用视觉空间线索;(3)同时静态呈现。
第56段(P0064)
原文复述
In addition to keeping all analogs visible during comparison, analogical processing can be facilitated through the specific presentation style of the visual representations. Displaying visual representations such that corresponding elements are spatially aligned can support greater learning (Matlen et al., 2011; Richland et al., 2007). Color coding can also be used to emphasize the entities in different exemplars that play analogous roles (see Figure 4). Simultaneous presentation of analogs and of the layout of the entities being compared may be combined with gestures that draw attention to corresponding elements of the analogs and facilitate comparison (Richland et al., 2007; Richland & McDonough, 2010).
中文讲解
作者论述:除在比较过程中保持所有类比可见外,还可通过视觉表征的具体呈现方式促进类比加工。以对应元素空间对齐的方式呈现视觉表征可支持更好的学习(Matlen et al., 2011; Richland et al., 2007)。还可以用颜色编码来强调不同样例中扮演类比角色的实体(见图4)。类比的同时呈现与被比较实体布局的同时呈现可与手势结合,手势将注意力引向类比的对应元素并促进比较(Richland et al., 2007; Richland & McDonough, 2010)。
补充说明
本段进一步细化呈现策略:空间对齐、颜色编码、手势。
第57段(P0065)
原文复述
Visuospatial methods of emphasizing shared structure, while effective, are largely implicit. To maximize attention to crucial similarities, the correspondences between analogs should be described explicitly. This can be accomplished through verbal descriptions of the correspondences, with the instructor explicitly pointing out that two entities play the same role in analogous situations. Relational language facilitates attention to structural relational information, which contributes to learning relational concepts (Gentner, Anggoro, & Klibanof, 2011). In addition, students can be prompted to attend to shared structure through the use of guided compare-and-contrast prompts. General prompts to compare two situations do not reliably focus attention on the most relevant比较维度, but directed compare-and-contrast instructions (e.g., to compare instances and identify their similarities) lead students to notice shared structure (Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989; Gick & Holyoak, 1983).
中文讲解
作者说明:突出共享结构的视觉空间方法虽然有效,但基本是隐性的。为最大化对关键相似性的注意,应显式描述类比间的对应关系。这可以通过对对应关系的言语描述实现,由教师显式指出两个实体在类比情境中扮演相同角色。关系性语言有助于关注结构关系信息,从而促进关系概念学习(Gentner, Anggoro, & Klibanof, 2011)。此外,可以通过引导性比较—对比提示促使学生关注共享结构。一般的两情境比较提示并不能可靠地将注意力聚焦于最相关的比较维度,但定向的比较—对比指令(例如比较实例并识别其相似性)能引导学生注意到共享结构(Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989; Gick & Holyoak, 1983)。
补充说明
本段强调在视觉空间策略之外加入显式言语描述和引导性比较提示,以弥补隐性呈现的不足。
第58段(P0066)
原文复述
Volume 15—Number 3
中文讲解
期刊版头:第15卷,第3期。
第59段(P0067)
原文复述
175.1228x, 2021, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.12288 by Indiana University Bloomington, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
中文讲解
Wiley在线图书馆下载与版权声明。
第60段(P0068)
原文复述
中文讲解
图4图注:“反馈回路的类比例子,以图示方式突出共享因果结构”。该图位于第8页,配合下文温度—空调与血糖—胰岛素两个负反馈例子,是原则2"突出共享结构"的核心图示化示例。
补充说明
需查看原图才能确认温度—空调和血糖—胰岛素两个例子的具体节点、箭头方向与颜色对应。
第61段(P0069)
原文复述
As an example, a biology instructor might use this component of the analogical approach when teaching negative feedback loops, which is an inherently structural concept. Unlike cases in which a well-understood source analog is used to understand a novel target concept, the main purpose of utilizing analogy in this instance is to emphasize the shared structure that defines negative feedback loops. The two analogs selected to be aligned and compared are two examples of this relational concept. In teaching this concept using an analogical approach, it is still beneficial to begin with an example likely to be familiar to students, such as the relationship between temperature and air conditioner (AC) activity. When temperature increases, this causes the air conditioner to turn on. When AC activity increases, this causes temperature (the original quantity) to decrease. The relationship between temperature and AC activity is an example of a negative feedback loop, which occurs when an increase in a quantity (i.e., temperature) causes a later decrease in that same quantity, or when a decrease in a quantity causes a later increase in that same quantity. The top portion of Figure 4 shows a diagram of the relationship between temperature and AC activity. This diagram could be drawn on the board to free up cognitive resources in the learner.
中文讲解
作者论述:举例而言,生物教师在教授负反馈回路(本质上是结构性概念)时可能会使用类比法的这一组成部分。与使用良好理解的源类比来理解新目标概念的情形不同,此处使用类比的主要目的是突出定义负反馈回路的共享结构。被选来对齐和比较的两个类比是该关系概念的两个例子。用类比法教授此概念时,仍宜从一个学生可能熟悉的例子入手,例如温度与空调活动的关系。当温度升高,这导致空调打开。当空调活动增加,这导致温度(原始量)下降。温度与空调活动的关系是负反馈回路的一个例子,它发生于当一个量(如温度)的增加导致该量随后下降,或当一个量的减少导致该量随后增加时。图4的上半部分展示了温度与空调活动之间关系的图示。该图可以画在黑板上以释放学习者的认知资源。
补充说明
温度—空调是负反馈回路的经典生活化示例,其因果链:温度↑→空调活动↑→温度↓。
第62段(P0070)
原文复述
After introducing the concept of negative feedback loops with a familiar example to capitalize on prior knowledge, instructors may then describe and diagram a second example, such as the relationship between glucose and insulin (bottom portion of Figure 4). When a person eats, glucose levels in the bloodstream rise. This causes the pancreas to secrete insulin, which lowers the level of glucose by helping the body to metabolize glucose. When diagramming this example, instructors should apply the analogical approach to highlight the shared structure that defines negative feedback loops. Specifically, instructors may draw the diagrams so that elements corresponding to one another are spatially aligned, and use color to further emphasize elements of each example that play the same role (see Figure 4). The correspondences can be explicitly pointed out. For example, an instructor might say, “Temperature corresponds to glucose because each of these things causes something else to increase,” while using comparative gesture to draw students’ attention to corresponding elements (Richland & McDonough, 2010). As elaborated below (principle 4), each of these modifications to instruction serves to highlight shared structure and to reduce extraneous cognitive load imposed by the comparison process.
中文讲解
作者论述:在用一个熟悉例子引入负反馈回路概念以利用先备知识后,教师可以接着描述并绘制第二个例子,例如血糖与胰岛素的关系(图4下半部分)。当人进食时,血糖水平上升,这导致胰腺分泌胰岛素,胰岛素通过帮助身体代谢葡萄糖来降低血糖水平。绘制此例时,教师应应用类比法以突出定义负反馈回路的共享结构。具体而言,教师可以绘制使对应元素空间对齐的图示,并用颜色进一步强调每个例子中扮演相同角色的元素(见图4)。对应关系可以被显式指出。例如,教师可以说:“温度对应于血糖,因为这两个东西都导致其他东西增加”,同时用比较手势将学生注意力引向对应元素(Richland & McDonough, 2010)。如下文(原则4)详述,这些教学修改中的每一项都旨在突出共享结构并减轻比较过程施加的外在认知负荷。
补充说明
血糖—胰岛素是第二个负反馈例子,其因果链:血糖↑→胰岛素分泌↑→血糖↓。两例的对应关系:温度↔血糖,空调活动↔胰岛素分泌。
第63段(P0071)
原文复述
Explain the Connections between Semantic Information and Mathematical Operations
中文讲解
小节标题(原则3):“解释语义信息与数学运算之间的联系”。这是五项原则中的第三项,聚焦语义对齐(semantic alignment)问题。
第64段(P0072)
原文复述
Bassok, Chase, and Martin (1998) and Bassok, 2001 introduced the construct of semantic alignment, which refers to the tendency to maintain systematic correspondences between the semantic relations that exist between real-world objects and mathematical relations between arguments of arithmetic operations. In general, students make fewer errors in constructing equations from word problems when those problems are aligned with respect to real-world relations (Martin & Bassok, 2005). For example, students readily add a tulips and b roses, but avoid adding a tulips and b vases (Bassok, 2001). Objects that are added play symmetric structural roles in the mathematical operation of addition—it does not matter if one adds tulips to roses or roses to tulips. Students therefore readily map roses and tulips onto addition (a symmetric mathematical operation) because roses and tulips come from the same taxonomic category, and taxonomically related objects play symmetric roles with respect to their joint superset (e.g., flowers). In contrast, problem solving is hindered when the mathematical structure does not fit the relations between the objects in the problem, as would be the case for a problem that requires using an asymmetrical mathematical operation, such as division, on objects that play symmetric roles (e.g., dividing roses by tulips). Semantic (mis)alignment is detected implicitly and influences event-related potentials (Guthormsen et al., 2016).
中文讲解
作者论述:Bassok, Chase和Martin(1998)以及Bassok(2001)引入了语义对齐(semantic alignment)的构念,指的是保持现实世界对象之间的语义关系与算术运算参数之间的数学关系的系统性对应的倾向。一般而言,当文字题在现实世界关系上与算式对齐时,学生在由文字题构建方程时的错误更少(Martin & Bassok, 2005)。例如,学生能轻易地把a朵郁金香和b朵玫瑰相加,但避免把a朵郁金香和b个花瓶相加(Bassok, 2001)。参与加法的对象在加法运算中扮演对称结构角色——无论是"郁金香加玫瑰"还是"玫瑰加郁金香"都一样。学生因此轻易把玫瑰和郁金香映射到加法(对称数学运算),因为玫瑰和郁金香来自同一分类范畴,且分类相关对象对其联合超集(如花)扮演对称角色。相反,当数学结构与题目中对象的关系不匹配时,问题解决会受阻,例如对一个需要用非对称数学运算(如除法)的题目作用于扮演对称角色的对象(如用郁金香去除玫瑰)。语义(不对)齐是被隐式检测到的,并影响事件相关电位(Guthormsen et al., 2016)。
补充说明
本段引入了"语义对齐"构念,并列举"郁金香+玫瑰"(同范畴对称)与"郁金香÷玫瑰"(不同范畴不对称)两个例子。
第65段(P0073)
原文复述
The alignment between real-world and mathematical knowledge guides the application of abstract mathematical knowledge by both students and textbook writers, not only in the United States (DeWolf, Bassok, & Holyoak, 2015; Rapp, Bassok, DeWolf, & Holyoak, 2015) but also in South Korea (Lee, DeWolf, Bassok, & Holyoak, 2016) and Russia (Tyumeneva et al., 2018). Importantly, alignments and their influence on problem solving procedures likely remain implicit in the mind of the problem solver, as they are not explicitly taught in schools. The effects of making semantic alignment more explicit have not yet been investigated. But given that highlighting shared structure demonstrably improves learning outcomes (e.g., Begolli & Richland, 2016; Richland & McDonough, 2010), it seems likely that emphasizing the alignment between a situation model and its corresponding mathematical model should facilitate understanding of the shared structure and improve problem solving.
中文讲解
作者论述:现实世界知识与数学知识之间的对齐引导着学生和教科书作者对抽象数学知识的应用,不仅在美国(DeWolf, Bassok, & Holyoak, 2015; Rapp et al., 2015),也在韩国(Lee et al., 2016)和俄罗斯(Tyumeneva et al., 2018)。重要的是,这些对齐及其对解题程序的影响很可能在解题者头脑中保持隐式,因为学校并未明确教授。尚未研究让语义对齐更为显式的效果。但鉴于突出共享结构已被证明能改善学习成果(Begolli & Richland, 2016; Richland & McDonough, 2010),强调情境模型与其对应数学模型之间的对齐很可能促进对共享结构的理解并改善问题解决。
补充说明
本段指出"语义对齐"具有跨文化普遍性(美国、韩国、俄罗斯),并提出"显式化对齐"可能带来新教学效果。
第66段(P0074)
原文复述
175.1228x, 2021, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.12288 by Indiana University Bloomington, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
中文讲解
Wiley在线图书馆下载与版权声明。
第67段(P0075)
原文复述
Volume 15—Number 3
中文讲解
期刊版头:第15卷,第3期。
第68段(P0076)
原文复述
In considering potential applications to STEM classrooms, it is useful to adopt a broad interpretation of semantic alignment. Students should be explicitly instructed about the meaning of various mathematical operations and also the mappings between mathematical and verbal representations. Not all real-world problems are aligned semantically with the formal operations that must be executed (e.g., despite the asymmetric relationship between students and teachers, the two sets must be added together to determine how many passengers will be loaded onto a bus for a field trip). Our general recommendation is to highlight the conceptual meaning of mathematical operations and then to “back-translate” from formal operations into the semantically meaningful elements of a word problem. The process of explaining the correspondences between the semantic interpretation of a problem and the relevant mathematical operations may foster understanding of the underlying conceptual structure, and enhance students’ success in translating verbal models into mathematical ones.
中文讲解
作者说明:在考虑STEM课堂的潜在应用时,宜采用对语义对齐的广义解释。应明确指导学生理解各种数学运算的含义以及数学表征与言语表征之间的映射。并非所有现实世界问题在语义上都与必须执行的算式对齐(例如,尽管学生与教师之间是不对称关系,但两个集合必须相加以确定将有多少乘客被装载上巴士去实地考察)。我们的总体建议是:突出数学运算的概念含义,然后从算式"反向翻译"到文字题中具有语义意义的元素。解释问题的语义解释与相应数学运算之间对应关系的过程可能促进对底层概念结构的理解,并提高学生将言语模型转化为数学模型的成功率。
补充说明
本段提出"反向翻译"(back-translate)作为原则3的具体教学策略:从算式回到语义元素。
第69段(P0077)
原文复述
Solid conceptual understanding of the meaning of mathematical operations contributes to mathematical reasoning in many types of problems. For example, such understanding is crucial for equation construction problems in which students must translate verbal expressions into mathematical expressions (Martin & Bassok, 2005; Simon & Hayes, 1976). In a biology class on mathematical modeling, students may be asked to translate a set of verbal assumptions that describe the state of a biological system into a series of differential equations that model how the system changes. Figure 5 summarizes four assumptions describing a simple ecosystem and the differential equations that can be constructed from them. A student in such a course may be tasked with writing a mathematical expression to represent how a population of hares, H, grows at a rate b proportional to the current population size. Multiplication is commonly understood by novices as repeated addition, but in fact it is better conceptualized as scaling by some multiplicative factor (Devlin, 2008). The incomplete conceptualization of “multiplication as repeated addition” does not support reasoning in this situation. However, if the conceptual meaning of multiplication is addressed, it will become clear that the growth of the hare population should be represented by its当前规模 scaled by the growth rate, and that this relationship can be expressed mathematically as multiplication, yielding b * H.
中文讲解
作者论述:对数学运算含义的扎实概念理解有助于多种类型问题的数学推理。例如,这种理解对于方程构建问题(学生必须将言语表达式翻译成数学表达式)至关重要(Martin & Bassok, 2005; Simon & Hayes, 1976)。在生物数学建模课上,学生可能被要求将描述生物系统状态的一系列言语假设翻译为建模系统如何变化的一系列微分方程。图5总结了描述一个简单生态系统的四条假设以及可由其构建的微分方程。在这样的课程中,学生可能被要求写出一个数学表达式以表示野兔种群H如何以与当前种群规模成比例的速率b增长。新手通常把乘法理解为重复加法,但实际上乘法更好被概念化为按某个乘法因子的缩放(Devlin, 2008)。“乘法即重复加法"的不完整概念化不支持该情境下的推理。然而,如果处理乘法的概念含义,就会清楚野兔种群的增长应该被表示为其当前规模按增长率缩放,且此关系可以用乘法表示为b * H。
补充说明
本段以"野兔种群增长率"为例说明"乘法即缩放"比"乘法即重复加法"更适合生态建模情境。
第70段(P0078)
原文复述
In addition to explaining the conceptual meaning of mathematical operations, these abstract concepts should be connected explicitly to real-world referents in the word
中文讲解
作者论述:除了解释数学运算的概念含义外,这些抽象概念还应被显式地连接到文字题中的现实世界指称对象上。文本在此处跨页被截断,下一段继续承接。
第71段(P0079)
原文复述
- In the absence of predators, hares have a constant per-capita growth rate 0.1
中文讲解
图5中的假设1:在没有捕食者的情况下,野兔具有恒定的每头增长率0.1。这是配套微分方程的第一条言语假设。
补充说明
此条与图5的方程组第一行正相关,“每头增长率"指每只野兔单位时间内的增长速率。
第72段(P0080)
原文复述
the population with proportionality constant 0.05
中文讲解
原文此处为含常数0.05的截断文字片段,承接关系在原文中不明,单独呈现时不构成完整假设。
补充说明
该段仅为不完整残片,需结合上下文(疑似假设3或相关方程项)方能完整理解,原文未给出完整表述。
第73段(P0081)
原文复述
- The The rate at which a single lynx catches hares is proportional to the hare population size with proportionality constant 0.02
中文讲解
假设2(OCR开头重复"The”):一只�猁捕食野兔的速率与野兔种群规模成比例,比例常数为0.02。该假设与"捕食项"有关,描述捕食者对猎物的捕获率。
补充说明
此假设对应图5方程组中的"0.02 * L * H"项,其中0.02为捕获比例常数。
第74段(P0082)
原文复述
$$ \begin{array}{c} {H ^ {\prime} = 0. 1 * H - 0. 0 2 * L * H} \ {L ^ {\prime} = 0. 0 5 * 0. 0 2 * L * H - 0. 1 * L} \end{array} $$
中文讲解
图5所示的微分方程组:第一行H′=0.1H−0.02LH,第二行L′=0.050.02LH−0.1*L。其中H代表野兔种群,L代表猞猁种群,H′与L′分别为两者的变化率。方程中出现的常数值与图5的四条言语假设中提到的常数相对应。
补充说明
该方程组与图5上方的四条假设并列呈现,展示了从言语假设到数学模型的转化。
第75段(P0083)
原文复述
Fig 5. Example of model writing taught using an analogical approach. H′ represents how the population of hares changes and L′ represents how the population of lynx changes.
中文讲解
图5图注:“用类比法教授的建模写作示例。H′代表野兔种群的变化,L′代表猞猁种群的变化”。
补充说明
此图作为原则3"语义对齐"的具体示例:言语假设(带颜色编码)→ 微分方程。
第76段(P0084)
原文复述
problems from which they were generated. This can be accomplished using a combination of visual and verbal methods. As shown in Figure 5, corresponding colors can be used to visually represent the correspondence between verbal concepts and mathematical relations. Thus the first assumption (colored in blue) corresponds to the blue term in the model shown below it.
中文讲解
作者论述:抽象概念应显式连接到产生它们的文字题中的现实世界指称对象。这可以通过视觉和言语方法的组合来实现。如图5所示,可用对应颜色来可视化言语概念与数学关系之间的对应。因此第一条假设(用蓝色标示)对应于下方模型中的蓝色项。
补充说明
此段展示了用颜色编码来建立言语—算式对应的具体教学技术,与原则2"突出共享结构"中颜色编码策略一致。
第77段(P0085)
原文复述
Visual cues that increase attention to correspondences between the text and mathematical structure should be accompanied by an explanation of the relevant mathematical relations in terms of their real-world interpretations. In the model shown in Figure 5, there are three different mathematical concepts at work that should be explained by an instructor. The first is addition. Mathematically, adding a positive term to a quantity increases the magnitude of that quantity. In this context, the population is the thing to which we are adding a positive term. A positive term conceptually represents something that makes a population grow in size, such as the birth of new animals. The second mathematical concept at work is subtraction. Mathematically, subtracting is the inverse of addition: subtracting a positive term from a quantity decreases the magnitude of the quantity. In this context, the semantic interpretation of subtracting a positive term is something that makes a population decrease in size, such as death of animals by predation or old age. Finally, multiplication is also relevant. Mathematically, multiplication scales a quantity by some factor. In this context, several quantities are being scaled. For example, hares, H, are born at a constant per-capita rate, 0.1. In other words, we expect each existing hare to increase the population of hares by a factor of 0.1. Multiplying the current population of hares by the per-capita birth rate yields a growth term that is scaled by the birth rate.
中文讲解
作者论述:增加文字与数学结构之间对应注意的视觉线索应伴有对相应数学关系的现实世界解释。在图5所示模型中,有三种不同的数学概念在起作用,应由教师解释。第一种是加法。在数学上,把正项加到一个量上会增加该量的大小。在此情境下,种群是被加上正项的对象。正项概念上代表使种群规模增长的事物,如新动物的出生。第二种在起作用的数学概念是减法。在数学上,减法是加法的逆运算:从一个量减去正项会减小该量的大小。在此情境下,减去正项的语义解释是使种群规模减小的事物,如因捕食或年老导致的动物死亡。最后,乘法也相关。在数学上,乘法按某个因子缩放一个量。在此情境下,若干量被缩放。例如,野兔H以恒定的每头速率0.1出生。换言之,我们预期每只现存野兔使野兔种群增加0.1的因子。当前野兔种群规模乘以每头出生率得出一个按出生率缩放的生长项。
补充说明
本段将图5方程涉及的数学概念(加、减、乘)逐一与其现实世界含义对应起来,是"反向翻译"策略的具体演示。
第78段(P0086)
原文复述
Instructors should not expect that such interpretations will come naturally to students, as many students lack conceptual understanding of even basic mathematical operations (Richland, Stigler, & Holyoak, 2012; Stigler, Givvin, & Thompson, 2010). Aligning verbal descriptions with their formal counterparts and explicating these correspondences will enhance students’ conceptual understanding of mathematics, and help them connect abstract mathematical operations with real-world meaning.
中文讲解
作者论述:教师不应预期学生会自然得出这些解释,因为许多学生甚至缺乏对基本数学运算的概念理解(Richland, Stigler, & Holyoak, 2012; Stigler, Givvin, & Thompson, 2010)。将言语描述与其形式对应物对齐并阐明这些对应关系将增进学生对数学的概念理解,并帮助他们将抽象数学运算与现实世界含义联系起来。
补充说明
此段收束原则3,呼应"对齐—显式化—增进概念理解"的论证逻辑。
第79段(P0087)
原文复述
Volume 15—Number 3
中文讲解
期刊版头:第15卷,第3期。
第80段(P0088)
原文复述
175.1228x, 2021, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.12288 by Indiana University Bloomington, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
中文讲解
Wiley在线图书馆下载与版权声明。
第81段(P0089)
原文复述
Consider Cognitive Load
中文讲解
小节标题(原则4):“考虑认知负荷”。这是五项原则中的第四项,关注如何避免类比教学给学生带来过高的认知负荷。
第82段(P0090)
原文复述
All learning imposes some cognitive load on learners. The potential benefits and harms imposed by taxing students’ limited cognitive resources during学习 has been debated, and a full discussion of this issue is beyond our present scope (see Kalyuga & Singh, 2016; Sweller, 2011). However, it is clear that analogical reasoning relies on the same pool of cognitive resources required for attending to to-be-learned material (e.g., Waltz et al., 2000).
中文讲解
作者论述:所有学习都给学习者施加一定的认知负荷。在学习期间消耗学生有限认知资源的潜在益处与危害已被讨论,本文不全面展开此议题(见Kalyuga & Singh, 2016; Sweller, 2011)。然而,明确的是类比推理依赖于与注意待学习材料所需的同一认知资源池(Waltz et al., 2000)。
补充说明
本段建立了"认知负荷"与"类比推理"的关联:二者争夺同一认知资源。
第83段(P0091)
原文复述
Some of the load imposed by learning is intrinsic because of the inherent difficulty of the material being learned, and some is extraneous because of the particular manner in which the material is presented to learners (Sweller, 2011). Extraneous cognitive load is not inherent to the to-be-learned material, but rather varies with presentation style. It has been proposed that increasing extraneous cognitive load leaves fewer resources available to devote to the target material, and thus may harm学习 for novices who have not had sufficient practice with the material (e.g., Richland & McDonough, 2010).
中文讲解
作者论述:学习施加的负荷一部分是内在的,因为所学习材料具有内在难度;一部分是外在的,因为材料被呈现给学习者的特定方式(Sweller, 2011)。外在认知负荷并非待学习材料所固有,而是随呈现方式而变。有人提出,增加外在认知负荷会留下更少资源用于目标材料,因此可能伤害尚未充分练习该材料的新手的学习(Richland & McDonough, 2010)。
补充说明
本段引入了认知负荷理论的核心二分:内在负荷 vs. 外在负荷。
第84段(P0092)
原文复述
The instructional modifications recommended by the analogical approach involve changes to the presentation style of material, and thus risk increasing cognitive load during the learning event. We refrain from making a blanket recommendation to always seek to reduce cognitive load because some evidence indicates that delaying direct instruction and providing students with structured (but challenging) opportunities to discover principles on their own can lead to superior learning and transfer (e.g., Jacobson et al., 2017; Schwartz, Chase, Oppezzo, & Chin, 2011). More advanced students may learn better with less scaffolding (see principle 5 below; Kalyuga, 2007). It is challenging for teachers to determine how much scaffolding is optimal for a particular student. But educators need to be aware of the potential for analogy to increase the cognitive load imposed on students (whether or not that increased load is desirable).
中文讲解
作者论述:类比法推荐的教学修改涉及材料呈现方式的改变,因此有在学习过程中增加认知负荷的风险。我们避免一概建议总是降低认知负荷,因为一些证据表明,延迟直接教学并提供学生结构化(但有挑战性的)机会自行发现原理,能带来更好的学习和迁移(Jacobson et al., 2017; Schwartz et al., 2011)。更高级的学生可能在较少脚手架下学得更好(见下文原则5;Kalyuga, 2007)。教师难以确定对特定学生最优的脚手架量。但教育者需要意识到类比有可能增加施加于学生的认知负荷(无论这种增加的负荷是否合意)。
补充说明
本段提出"不要一概减少负荷"的反向建议,与原则5"鼓励生成推论"的"专长反转效应"相呼应。
第85段(P0093)
原文复述
Analogical comparison is a resource-intensive process, but extraneous load may be reduced when appropriate. As noted in the section on highlighting structure, the extraneous cognitive load incurred by analogical comparison of exemplars can be minimized through small changes to the instructional delivery. First, the exemplars that are the focus of the comparison should be represented visually and presented simultaneously whenever possible. Corresponding elements of the exemplars should be aligned spatially, and may be written in corresponding colors to further highlight that they play analogous roles in their respective situations (see Figures 4 and 5). Gesturing between elements that play corresponding roles in different analogs also facilitates comparison (Richland & McDonough, 2010). In addition to these visuospatial methods, cognitive load may be reduced further by explicitly pointing out correspondences during initial learning (Novick & Holyoak, 1991). For example, if a biology instructor is teaching negative feedback loops using two analogous examples of the concept, they can describe the correspondence explicitly and justify it (e.g., in Figure 4, temperature corresponds to glucose because each of these things causes something else to increase).
中文讲解
作者论述:类比比较是高资源消耗过程,但外在负荷可在适当时被降低。如"突出结构"小节所述,类比样例比较所引起的外在认知负荷可通过教学呈现的小改变最小化。首先,比较焦点的样例应尽可能视觉化且同时呈现。样例的对应元素应在空间上对齐,可以用对应颜色书写以进一步突出它们在各自情境中扮演类比角色(见图4和图5)。在不同类比中扮演对应角色的元素间做手势也能促进比较(Richland & McDonough, 2010)。除这些视觉空间方法外,在初始学习期间显式指出对应关系可进一步降低认知负荷(Novick & Holyoak, 1991)。例如,如果生物教师用该概念的两个类比例子教授负反馈回路,他们可以显式描述对应关系并加以论证(如在图4中,温度对应血糖,因为这两者都引起其他东西的增加)。
补充说明
本段集中给出原则4的具体策略:同时呈现、空间对齐、颜色、手势、显式指出对应关系。
第86段(P0094)
原文复述
Encourage Generation of Inferences
中文讲解
小节标题(原则5):“鼓励生成推论”。这是五项原则中的最后一项,关注在学生具备一定熟练度后让其主动生成对应关系和推论。
第87段(P0095)
原文复述
Studies of human memory have shown that generating information usually leads to better retention than passive study (for a review see Bertsch, Pesta, Wiscott, & McDaniel, 2007). This generation effect has also been demonstrated in educational settings (Metcalfe & Kornell, 2007). Recent work suggests that generating analogical inferences (rather than simply verifying them) may be similarly beneficial. Vendetti, Wu, and Holyoak (2014) compared the effects of generating solutions to semantically distant four-term verbal analogies to passively viewing and evaluating completed analogies. Generating solutions to distant analogies selectively fostered the induction of a relational mindset that fostered attention to relational information in a subsequent analogy task using completely different relations (see also Andrews & Vann, 2019; Simms & Richland, 2019). These findings suggest that generating relational information may encourage participants to attend to it.
中文讲解
作者论述:人类记忆研究表明,生成信息通常比被动学习带来更好的保持(综述见Bertsch et al., 2007)。这种"生成效应"在教育情境中也得到证明(Metcalfe & Kornell, 2007)。最近的工作表明,生成类比推论(而非仅仅验证它们)可能同样有益。Vendetti, Wu和Holyoak(2014)比较了为语义距离远的四项言语类比生成解与被动观看并评估已完成的类比的影响。生成远距离类比的解选择性促进了一种关系思维模式的归纳,这种思维模式促进了在后续使用完全不同关系的类比任务中对关系信息的注意(亦见Andrews & Vann, 2019; Simms & Richland, 2019)。这些发现表明,生成关系信息可能鼓励参与者关注它。
补充说明
本段引入了"生成效应”(generation effect)作为原则5的理论基础。
第88段(P0096)
原文复述
When students are first introduced to a concept using analogous examples, tasking them with generating the mappings between corresponding elements of the examples is likely to impose too great a cognitive load. However, this technique may be introduced later on in a lesson, when students have some familiarity with the concept. Low-knowledge learners typically need significant scaffolding (see principles 2 and 4), but these techniques may lose their efficacy for high-knowledge learners. This transition in effective instructional techniques from low- to high-knowledge learners has been termed the “expertise reversal” effect (Kalyuga, 2007), and the analogical approach fits within this framework. Early on, instructors should provide explicit guidance on analogical comparison to prevent the comparison from overwhelming limited cognitive resources. As learners gain expertise, however, their need for instructor guidance is likely to be reduced. Generating mappings among analogs and drawing appropriate inferences directs attention to relational structure, which gives proficient students the opportunity to practice attending to the important relational information without direction from an instructor. This type of activity resembles testing and real-world contexts in which instructor guidance is conspicuously absent. Further, previous research suggests that generating the underlying structure will lead to greater retention of that structure (Bertsch et al., 2007).
中文讲解
作者论述:当学生最初通过类比例子被引入一个概念时,让他们生成例子间对应元素的映射可能施加过高的认知负荷。然而,此技术可以在课程稍后、学生对概念有一定熟悉度时引入。低知识学习者通常需要显著脚手架(见原则2和4),但这些技术对高知识学习者可能失去效力。这种从低到高知识学习者的有效教学技术转变被称为"专长反转效应"(Kalyuga, 2007),类比法符合此框架。早期,教师应就类比比较提供显式指导,以防止比较压垮有限的认知资源。然而,随学习者获得专长,他们对教师指导的需求可能减少。在类比间生成映射并得出适当推论将注意力引向关系结构,这给熟练学生提供了在无教师指导情况下练习注意重要关系信息的机会。这种活动类似于考试和真实世界情境中教师指导明显缺失的情形。此外,先前研究表明,生成底层结构将带来对该结构更高的保持(Bertsch et al., 2007)。
补充说明
本段引入了"专长反转效应"(expertise reversal effect),将原则5与原则2、4中"脚手架"策略联系起来。
第89段(P0097)
原文复述
Volume 15—Number 3
中文讲解
期刊版头:第15卷,第3期。
第90段(P0098)
原文复述
175.128x, 2021, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.12288 by Indiana University Bloomington, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
中文讲解
Wiley在线图书馆下载与版权声明。
第91段(P0099)
原文复述
This component of an analogical approach to instruction can be illustrated using the example of negative feedback loops. As discussed previously, negative feedback loops occur when an increase in a quantity causes a later decrease in that same quantity, or when a decrease in a quantity causes a later increase in that same quantity. After the concept has been introduced and the instructor has explained some examples of it (see Figure 4), students will have some familiarity with the concept. At this point, the instructor may describe another example of a negative feedback loop and instruct students to align it with the initial examples. The relationship between a population of tuna and a population of sharks is another case of a negative feedback loop: when the tuna population increases, it causes the shark population to increase because there is more food available. When the shark population increases, this causes the tuna population to decrease because they will be eaten by more sharks. If students properly align the tuna with glucose and temperature, they will be generating the shared structure that defines negative feedback loops.
中文讲解
作者论述:类比教学法的这一组成部分可用负反馈回路的例子说明。如前所述,负反馈回路发生于当一个量的增加导致该量随后下降,或当一个量的减少导致该量随后增加时。在概念被引入且教师解释了若干例子后(见图4),学生将对概念有一定熟悉度。此时,教师可以描述另一个负反馈回路的例子,并指示学生将其与初始例子对齐。金枪鱼种群与鲨鱼种群之间的关系是负反馈回路的另一例:当金枪鱼种群增加时,因为有更多食物,这导致鲨鱼种群增加。当鲨鱼种群增加时,因为这导致更多金枪鱼被捕食,这使金枪鱼种群减少。如果学生正确将金枪鱼与血糖、温度对齐,他们就是在生成定义负反馈回路的共享结构。
补充说明
本段以金枪鱼—鲨鱼—负反馈回路作为原则5的示例:让学生主动生成与温度、血糖的对应关系。
第92段(P0100)
原文复述
CONCLUSIONS
中文讲解
小节标题"结论"。这是论文最后一个小节,总结类比作为教育工具的广泛适用性。
第93段(P0101)
原文复述
Analogy is a powerful and flexible educational tool. Although we have focused on applications in STEM fields, the benefits conferred by analogy are not limited to these domains, or to the relatively advanced types of concepts we have discussed as examples. Young children are drawn to superficial similarities (Richland, Morrison, & Holyoak, 2006), but with appropriate guidance from an educator highlighting relational information, children may also benefit from analogical instruction (Holyoak et al., 1984). Further, education in non-STEM fields such as political science (Spellman & Holyoak, 1992), business (Gentner et al., 2003), and law (Lamond, 2016) may also be improved by inclusion of analogies. Much of the subject matter in such fields may be better suited to verbal than visual representation, but the same key principles can be applied. Taken together, the principles suggested here provide a framework to guide the application of analogy in classroom settings so as to foster greater conceptual understanding and transfer.
中文讲解
作者论述:类比是一种强大而灵活的教育工具。虽然我们集中于STEM领域的应用,但类比带来的益处不限于这些领域,也不限于我们用作例子的较高级概念类型。幼儿易被表面相似性吸引(Richland, Morrison, & Holyoak, 2006),但有教育者适当引导突出关系信息时,儿童也能从类比教学中获益(Holyoak et al., 1984)。此外,非STEM领域(如政治学Spellman & Holyoak, 1992、商业Gentner et al., 2003、法律Lamond, 2016)的教育也可能通过纳入类比而改善。这些领域的大部分主题可能更适合言语而非视觉表征,但同样的关键原则仍可应用。综上,这里提出的原则提供了一个指导课堂情境中类比应用、以促进更大概念理解和迁移的框架。
补充说明
本段将类比的应用范围从STEM扩展到政治学、商业、法律等领域,强调原则的可推广性。
第94段(P0102)
原文复述
Acknowledgments—This research was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS-1827374.
中文讲解
致谢:本研究得到美国国家科学基金会(NSF)资助,资助号为BCS-1827374。
补充说明
BCS-1827374是NSF行为与认知科学(Biological and Cognitive Sciences)类项目的资助编号。
第95段(P0103)
原文复述
REFERENCES
中文讲解
小节标题"参考文献"。这是论文末尾的参考文献部分起始标题。
第96段(P0104)
原文复述
Alfieri, L., Nokes-Malach, T. J., & Schunn, C. D. (2013). Learning through case comparisons: A meta-analytic review. Educational Psychologist, 48(2), 87–113.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Alfieri, L., Nokes-Malach, T. J., & Schunn, C. D.(2013)。通过案例比较学习:一项元分析综述。《教育心理学家》,48(2),87–113。
补充说明
该文是支持"案例比较提升学习"的核心元分析之一,被本文原则2多次引用。
第97段(P0105)
原文复述
Andrews, G., & Vann, D. M. (2019). Solving distant analogies reduces belief-based responding in transitive inference. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 31(7), 760–767. https://doi.org/10 .1080/20445911.2019.1657432
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Andrews, G., & Vann, D. M.(2019)。解决远距离类比减少传递推理中的信念反应。《认知心理学杂志》,31(7),760–767。
补充说明
该研究支持"生成类比推论可引发关系思维模式"的主张(原则5)。
第98段(P0106)
原文复述
Baker, W. P., & Lawson, A. E. (2001). Complex instructional analogies and theoretical concept acquisition in college genetics. Science Education, 85(6), 665–683.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Baker, W. P., & Lawson, A. E.(2001)。复杂教学类比与大学遗传学中的理论概念获得。《科学教育》,85(6),665–683。
补充说明
该研究支持"类比提高大学生遗传学概念理解"的主张(原则1)。
第99段(P0107)
原文复述
Bassok, M. (2001). Semantic alignments in mathematical word problems. In D. Gentner, K. J. Holyoak & B. N. Kokinov (Eds.), The analogical mind: Perspectives from cognitive science. (pp. 401–433). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Bassok, M.(2001)。数学文字题中的语义对齐。载于D. Gentner, K. J. Holyoak & B. N. Kokinov(编)《类比心智:来自认知科学的视角》(401–433页)。剑桥,麻省:MIT出版社。
补充说明
该章是原则3"语义对齐"构念的主要出处之一。
第100段(P0108)
原文复述
Bassok, M., Chase, V. M., & Martin, S. A. (1998). Adding apples and oranges: Alignment of semantic and formal knowledge. Cognitive Psychology, 35, 99–134.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Bassok, M., Chase, V. M., & Martin, S. A.(1998)。苹果与橘子相加:语义与形式知识的对齐。《认知心理学》,35,99–134。
补充说明
与Bassok(2001)共同奠定语义对齐概念。
第101段(P0109)
原文复述
Bean, T. W., Searles, D., Singer, H., & Cowen, S. (1990). Learning concepts from biology text through pictorial analogies and an analogical study guide. Journal of Educational Research, 83(4), 233–237.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Bean, T. W., Searles, D., Singer, H., & Cowen, S.(1990)。通过图画类比和类比学习指南从生物文本中学习概念。《教育研究杂志》,83(4),233–237。
补充说明
该研究是本文P0059描述的细胞—工厂教学实验的主要来源。
第102段(P0110)
原文复述
Begolli, K. N., & Richland, L. E. (2016). Teaching mathematics by comparison: Analog visibility as a double-edged sword. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(2), 194.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Begolli, K. N., & Richland, L. E.(2016)。通过比较教学数学:类比可见性的双刃剑作用。《教育心理学杂志》,108(2),194。
补充说明
该文涉及类比可见性对学习的双重影响,被本文原则2和原则4引用。
第103段(P0111)
原文复述
Bertsch, S., Pesta, B. J., Wiscott, R., & McDaniel, M. A. (2007). The generation effect: A meta-analytic review. Memory & Cognition, 35(2), 201–210. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193441
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Bertsch, S., Pesta, B. J., Wiscott, R., & McDaniel, M. A.(2007)。生成效应:一项元分析综述。《记忆与认知》,35(2),201–210。
补充说明
该元分析是原则5"生成效应"的核心实证基础。
第104段(P0112)
原文复述
Binder, J. R. (2016). In defense of abstract conceptual representations. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(4), 1096–1108. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0909-1
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Binder, J. R.(2016)。捍卫抽象概念表征。《心理通报与评论》,23(4),1096–1108。
补充说明
本文引用此文献支持"具体性关联于更丰富、更分布神经表征"的主张(原则1)。
第105段(P0113)
原文复述
Boshuizen, H. P., & Schmidt, H. G. (2008). The development of clinical reasoning expertise. In J. Higgs, M. A. Jones, S. Loftus, & N. Christensen (Eds.), Clinical reasoning in the health professions. (3rd ed., pp. 113–121). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Boshuizen, H. P., & Schmidt, H. G.(2008)。临床推理专长的发展。载于J. Higgs, M. A. Jones, S. Loftus, & N. Christensen(编)《卫生专业人员的临床推理》(第三版,113–121页)。费城,宾夕法尼亚州:Elsevier出版社。
补充说明
该章为"先备知识改变新知识编码"的主张提供医学教育方面的来源。
第106段(P0114)
原文复述
Braasch, J. L., & Goldman, S. R. (2010). The role of prior knowledge in learning from analogies in science texts. Discourse Processes, 47(6), 447–479.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Braasch, J. L., & Goldman, S. R.(2010)。先备知识在从科学文本类比中学习的作用。《话语过程》,47(6),447–479。
补充说明
本文多次引用此文献支持"先备知识对类比学习的影响"。
第107段(P0115)
原文复述
Brown, A. L., Kane, M. J., & Echols, C. H. (1986). Young children’s mental models determine analogical transfer across problems with a common goal structure. Cognitive Development, 1(2), 103–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0885-2014(86)80014-4
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Brown, A. L., Kane, M. J., & Echols, C. H.(1986)。幼儿的心理模型决定具有共同目标结构问题间的类比迁移。《认知发展》,1(2),103–121。
补充说明
该研究表明类比教学对学龄前儿童有效(与P0023对应)。
第108段(P0116)
原文复述
Campos, I. S., Almeida, L. S., Ferreira, A. I., Martinez, L. F., & Ramalho, G. (2013). Cognitive processes and math performance: A study with children at third grade of basic education. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(2), 421–436.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Campos, I. S., Almeida, L. S., Ferreira, A. I., Martinez, L. F., & Ramalho, G.(2013)。认知过程与数学表现:三年级基础教育儿童研究。《欧洲教育心理学杂志》,28(2),421–436。
补充说明
该研究支持"执行功能与学业成就相关"的主张。
第109段(P0117)
原文复述
Catrambone, R., & Holyoak, K. J. (1989). Overcoming contextual limitations on problem-solving transfer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15(6), 1147.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Catrambone, R., & Holyoak, K. J.(1989)。克服问题解决迁移的语境限制。《实验心理学杂志:学习、记忆与认知》,15(6),1147。
补充说明
该研究是本文类比迁移和抽象图式归纳论述的经典来源。
第110段(P0118)
原文复述
Chiesi, H. L., Spilich, G. J., & Voss, J. F. (1979). Acquisition of domain-related information in relation to high and low domain knowledge. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18(3), 257–273.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Chiesi, H. L., Spilich, G. J., & Voss, J. F.(1979)。与高、低领域知识相关的领域信息获取。《言语学习与言语行为杂志》,18(3),257–273。
补充说明
本文引用此文献支持"相关先备知识对学习有正向影响"(原则1)。
第111段(P0119)
原文复述
Cho, S., Holyoak, K. J., & Cannon, T. D. (2007). Analogical reasoning in working memory: Resources shared among relational integration, interference resolution, and maintenance. Memory & Cognition, 35(6), 1445–1455. https://doi.org/10.3758/ BF03193614
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Cho, S., Holyoak, K. J., & Cannon, T. D.(2007)。工作记忆中的类比推理:关系整合、干扰解决与维持共享的资源。《记忆与认知》,35(6),1445–1455。
补充说明
本文引用此文献支持"执行功能与类比推理相关"的主张。
第112段(P0120)
原文复述
Cho, S., Moody, T. D., Fernandino, L., Mumford, J. A., Poldrack, R. A., Cannon, T. D., … Holyoak, K. J. (2010). Common and dissociable prefrontal loci associated with component mechanisms of analogical reasoning. Cerebral Cortex, 20(3), 524–533. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhp121
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Cho, S., Moody, T. D., Fernandino, L., Mumford, J. A., Poldrack, R. A., Cannon, T. D., … Holyoak, K. J.(2010)。与类比推理成分机制相关的共同与可分离的前额叶位点。《大脑皮层》,20(3),524–533。
补充说明
该神经影像学研究支持"类比推理依赖多种执行功能"。
第113段(P0121)
原文复述
Volume 15—Number 3
中文讲解
期刊版头:第15卷,第3期。
第114段(P0122)
原文复述
1751228x, 2021, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.1228 by Indiana University Bloomington, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
中文讲解
Wiley在线图书馆下载与版权声明。
第115段(P0123)
原文复述
Clement, C. A., & Yanowitz, K. L. (2003). Using an analogy to model causal mechanisms in a complex text. Instructional Science, 31(3), 195–225.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Clement, C. A., & Yanowitz, K. L.(2003)。使用类比建模复杂文本中的因果机制。《教学科学》,31(3),195–225。
补充说明
该研究支持"在科学文本中加入类比增进理解"(与P0032对应)。
第116段(P0124)
原文复述
Corral, D., & Jones, M. (2014). The effects of relational structure on analogical learning. Cognition, 132, 280–300.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Corral, D., & Jones, M.(2014)。关系结构对类比学习的影响。《认知》,132,280–300。
补充说明
该研究支持"关系结构在类比学习中的核心作用"。
第117段(P0125)
原文复述
Devlin, K. J. (2008, June). It ain’t no repeated addition. Retrieved from Devlin’s Angle website: https://www.maa.org/external_archive/devlin/devlin_06_08.html
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Devlin, K. J.(2008年6月)。《它不是重复加法》。取自Devlin’s Angle网站。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"乘法不是重复加法,而是按因子缩放"(原则3)。
第118段(P0126)
原文复述
Devlin, K. J. (2012) Introduction to mathematical thinking. Palo Alto, CA: Devlin.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Devlin, K. J.(2012)《数学思维导论》。帕洛阿尔托,加州:Devlin出版社。
补充说明
Devlin关于数学思维的另一著作。
第119段(P0127)
原文复述
DeWolf, M., Bassok, M., & Holyoak, K. J. (2015). Conceptual structure and the procedural affordances of rational numbers: Relational reasoning with fractions and decimals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(1), 127–150. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/xge0000034
中文讲解
参考文献条目:DeWolf, M., Bassok, M., & Holyoak, K. J.(2015)。有理数的概念结构与程序可供性:分数与小数的关系推理。《实验心理学杂志:综合》,144(1),127–150。
补充说明
该研究支持"现实世界与数学知识对齐引导抽象数学知识应用"(原则3)。
第120段(P0128)
原文复述
Duit, R. (1991). On the role of analogies and metaphors in learning science. Science Education, 75(6), 649–672. https://doi.org/10 .1002/sce.3730750606
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Duit, R.(1991)。关于类比与隐喻在科学学习中作用的论述。《科学教育》,75(6),649–672。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"熟悉真实世界经验作为源类比提高学生动机"。
第121段(P0129)
原文复述
Duncker, K. (1945) On problem-solving. Psychological monographs (Vol. 58) (Whole No. 270).
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Duncker, K.(1945)《论问题解决》。《心理学专论》(第58卷)(总第270号)。
补充说明
Duncker的辐射问题是类比迁移研究的经典靶问题(P0017)。
第122段(P0130)
原文复述
English, L. D., & Halford, G. S. (1995) Mathematics education: Models and processes. Hillsade, NJ: Erlbaum.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:English, L. D., & Halford, G. S.(1995)《数学教育:模型与过程》。希尔斯代尔,新泽西州:Erlbaum出版社。
补充说明
该书为数学教育中模型与过程的研究文献。
第123段(P0131)
原文复述
Gentner, D. (1983). Structure-mapping: A theoretical framework for analogy. Cognitive Science, 7, 155–170.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Gentner, D.(1983)。结构映射:类比的一个理论框架。《认知科学》,7,155–170。
补充说明
结构映射理论是类比推理领域的奠基性文献之一。
第124段(P0132)
原文复述
Gentner, D., Anggoro, F. K., & Klibanof, R. S. (2011). Structure mapping and relational language support children’s learning of relational categories. Child Development, 82(4), 1173–1188. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01599.x
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Gentner, D., Anggoro, F. K., & Klibanof, R. S.(2011)。结构映射和关系语言支持儿童学习关系范畴。《儿童发展》,82(4),1173–1188。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"关系语言有助于关系概念学习"(原则2)。
第125段(P0133)
原文复述
Gentner, D., Levine, S. C., Ping, R., Isaia, A., Dhillon, S., Bradley, C., & Honke, G. (2016). Rapid learning in a children’s museum via analogical comparison. Cognitive Science, 40(1), 224–240.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Gentner, D., Levine, S. C., Ping, R., Isaia, A., Dhillon, S., Bradley, C., & Honke, G.(2016)。通过类比比较在儿童博物馆中快速学习。《认知科学》,40(1),224–240。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比样例的对齐和比较改善STEM学习"。
第126段(P0134)
原文复述
Gentner, D., Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L. (2003). Learning and transfer: A general role for analogical encoding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 393–408. https://doi.org/10 .1037/0022-0663.95.2.393
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Gentner, D., Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L.(2003)。学习与迁移:类比编码的一般作用。《教育心理学杂志》,95(2),393–408。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比编码促进迁移和图式归纳"。
第127段(P0135)
原文复述
Gentner, D., & Markman, A. B. (1997). Structure mapping in analogy and similarity. American Psychologist, 52(1), 45.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Gentner, D., & Markman, A. B.(1997)。类比与相似性中的结构映射。《美国心理学家》,52(1),45。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比比较增进对关系的注意"。
第128段(P0136)
原文复述
Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J. (1980). Analogical problem solving. Cognitive Psychology, 12(3), 306–355.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J.(1980)。类比问题解决。《认知心理学》,12(3),306–355。
补充说明
该文是本文理论基础的核心来源(将军—辐射问题实验)。
第129段(P0137)
原文复述
Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J. (1983). Schema induction and analogical transfer. Cognitive Psychology, 15(1), 1–38.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J.(1983)。图式归纳与类比迁移。《认知心理学》,15(1),1–38。
补充说明
该文与Gick & Holyoak(1980)一起构成类比迁移研究的基础。
第130段(P0138)
原文复述
Gobet, F., & Simon, H. A. (1996). Templates in chess memory: A mechanism for recalling several boards. Cognitive Psychology, 31(1), 1–40.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Gobet, F., & Simon, H. A.(1996)。国际象棋记忆中的模板:一种回忆多个棋局的机制。《认知心理学》,31(1),1–40。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"先备知识改变新知识编码"。
第131段(P0139)
原文复述
Goldwater, M. B., & Gentner, D. (2015). On the acquisition of abstract knowledge: Structural alignment and explication in learning causal system categories. Cognition, 137, 137–153.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Goldwater, M. B., & Gentner, D.(2015)。论抽象知识的获得:因果系统范畴学习中的结构对齐与显化。《认知》,137,137–153。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比比较增进对关系的注意"。
第132段(P0140)
原文复述
Goldwater, M. B., & Schalk, L. (2016). Relational categories as a bridge between cognitive and educational research. Psychological Bulletin, 142(7), 729.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Goldwater, M. B., & Schalk, L.(2016)。关系范畴:连接认知与教育研究的桥梁。《心理学公报》,142(7),729。
补充说明
该综述讨论关系范畴作为认知与教育研究桥梁。
第133段(P0141)
原文复述
Gray, M. E., & Holyoak, K. J. (2020). Individual differences in relational reasoning. Memory & Cognition, 48(1), 96–110. https:// doi.org/10.3758/s13421-019-00964-y
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Gray, M. E., & Holyoak, K. J.(2020)。关系推理的个体差异。《记忆与认知》,48(1),96–110。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"执行功能与类比推理相关"。
第134段(P0142)
原文复述
Guthormsen, A. M., Fisher, K. J., Bassok, M., Osterhout, L., DeWolf, M., & Holyoak, K. J. (2016). Conceptual integration of arithmetic operations with real-world knowledge: Evidence from event-related potentials. Cognitive Science, 40(3), 723–757. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12238
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Guthormsen, A. M., Fisher, K. J., Bassok, M., Osterhout, L., DeWolf, M., & Holyoak, K. J.(2016)。算术运算与现实世界知识的概念整合:来自事件相关电位的证据。《认知科学》,40(3),723–757。
补充说明
该研究支持"语义(不对)齐是被隐式检测到的"(原则3)。
第135段(P0143)
原文复述
Halford, G. S., Wilson, W. H., & Phillips, W. (1998). Processing capacity defined by relational complexity: Implications for comparative, developmental and cognitive psychology. Behavioral Brain Sciences, 21(6), 803–831.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Halford, G. S., Wilson, W. H., & Phillips, W.(1998)。由关系复杂性定义的处理能力:对比较、发展与认知心理学的影响。《行为脑科学》,21(6),803–831。
补充说明
关系复杂性理论为本文类比推理与认知资源论述提供理论支撑。
第136段(P0144)
原文复述
Holland, J. H., Holyoak, K. J., Nisbett, R. E., & Thagard, P. R. (1989) Induction: Processes of inference, learning, and discovery. Cambridge, MA: MIT press.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Holland, J. H., Holyoak, K. J., Nisbett, R. E., & Thagard, P. R.(1989)《归纳:推理、学习与发现的过程》。剑桥,麻省:MIT出版社。
补充说明
该书是类比与归纳推理领域的经典著作。
第137段(P0145)
原文复述
Holyoak, K. J. (1985). The pragmatics of analogical transfer. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), Psychology of learning and motivation. (Vol. 19, pp. 59–87). Orlando, FL: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10 .1016/S0079-7421(08)60524-1
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Holyoak, K. J.(1985)。类比迁移的语用学。载于G. H. Bower(编)《学习与动机心理学》(第19卷,59–87页)。奥兰多,佛罗里达:学术出版社。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比思维受推理者务实目标引导"。
第138段(P0146)
原文复述
Holyoak, K. J. (2019) The spider’s thread: Metaphor in mind, brain, and poetry. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Holyoak, K. J.(2019)《蜘蛛之丝:心智、大脑与诗歌中的隐喻》。剑桥,麻省:MIT出版社。
补充说明
图3获Holyoak(2019)许可转载(与P0026对应)。
第139段(P0147)
原文复述
Holyoak, K. J., & Cheng, P. W. (2011). Causal learning and inference as a rational process: The new synthesis. Annual Review of Psychology, 62(1), 135–163. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev .psych.121208.131634
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Holyoak, K. J., & Cheng, P. W.(2011)。因果学习与推理作为一种理性过程:新综合。《心理学年度评论》,62(1),135–163。
补充说明
本文引用此文作为"人类具有推理因果关系的专门机制"综述的来源。
第140段(P0148)
原文复述
Holyoak, K. J., Junn, E. N., & Billman, D. O. (1984). Development of analogical problem-solving skill. Child Development, 55, 2042–2055.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Holyoak, K. J., Junn, E. N., & Billman, D. O.(1984)。类比问题解决技能的发展。《儿童发展》,55,2042–2055。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比教学对儿童有效"(与P0023对应)。
第141段(P0149)
原文复述
Holyoak, K. J., & Koh, K. (1987). Surface and structural similarity in analogical transfer. Memory & Cognition, 15(4), 332–340. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03197035
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Holyoak, K. J., & Koh, K.(1987)。类比迁移中的表面与结构相似性。《记忆与认知》,15(4),332–340。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"结构相似性在类比迁移中的重要性"。
第142段(P0150)
原文复述
Holyoak, K. J., & Lee, H. S. (2017). Inferring causal relations by analogy. In M. R. Waldmann (Ed.), Oxford handbook of causal reasoning. (pp. 459–473). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Holyoak, K. J., & Lee, H. S.(2017)。通过类比推断因果关系。载于M. R. Waldmann(编)《牛津因果推理手册》(459–473页)。纽约,牛津大学出版社。
补充说明
本文引用此文作为"生成性与预防性原因区分"综述的来源。
第143段(P0151)
原文复述
Holyoak, K. J., Lee, H. S., & Lu, H. (2010). Analogical and category-based inference: A theoretical integration with Bayesian causal models. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139(4), 702–727. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020488
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Holyoak, K. J., Lee, H. S., & Lu, H.(2010)。类比与范畴推理:与贝叶斯因果模型的理论整合。《实验心理学杂志:综合》,139(4),702–727。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比对应关系基于因果关系匹配"。
第144段(P0152)
原文复述
Holyoak, K. J., Novick, L. R., & Melz, E. R. (1994). Component processes in analogical transfer: Mapping, pattern completion, and adaptation. In K. J. Holyoak, & J. A. Barnden (Eds.), Advances in connectionist and neural computation theory. Analogical connections (Vol. 2, pp. 113–180). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Holyoak, K. J., Novick, L. R., & Melz, E. R.(1994)。类比迁移中的成分过程:映射、模式完成与适应。载于K. J. Holyoak, & J. A. Barnden(编)《联结主义与神经计算理论进展:类比联结》(第2卷,113–180页)。诺伍德,新泽西州:Ablex出版社。
补充说明
该章是本文P0022-P0023所述"类比问题解决主要成分"框架的主要来源。
第145段(P0153)
原文复述
Holyoak, K. J., & Stamenkovic, D. (2018). Metaphor comprehension: A critical review of theories and evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 144(6), 641–671. https://doi.org/10.1037/ bul0000145
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Holyoak, K. J., & Stamenkovic, D.(2018)。隐喻理解:理论与证据的批判性综述。《心理学公报》,144(6),641–671。
补充说明
该文是关于隐喻理解的综述。
第146段(P0154)
原文复述
Holyoak, K. J., & Thagard, P. (1989). Analogical mapping by constraint satisfaction. Cognitive Science, 13(3), 295–355. https:// doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1303_1
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Holyoak, K. J., & Thagard, P.(1989)。通过约束满足进行的类比映射。《认知科学》,13(3),295–355。
补充说明
约束满足是类比映射的经典计算模型之一。
第147段(P0155)
原文复述
Holyoak, K. J., & Thagard, P. (1995) Mental leaps: Analogy in creative thought. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Holyoak, K. J., & Thagard, P.(1995)《心理跳跃:创造性思维中的类比》。剑桥,麻省:MIT出版社。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比推理能力可引导科学发现"(原则1)。
第148段(P0156)
原文复述
Hummel, J. E., & Holyoak, K. J. (1997). Distributed representations of structure: A theory of analogical access and mapping. Psychological Review, 104(3), 427.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Hummel, J. E., & Holyoak, K. J.(1997)。结构的分布式表征:类比访问与映射的一种理论。《心理学评论》,104(3),427。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"执行功能与类比推理相关"。
第149段(P0157)
原文复述
Hummel, J. E., & Holyoak, K. J. (2003). A symbolic-connectionist theory of relational inference and generalization. Psychological Review, 110(2), 220.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Hummel, J. E., & Holyoak, K. J.(2003)。关系推理与概括的符号—联结主义理论。《心理学评论》,110(2),220。
补充说明
该理论将关系推理建模为符号—联结主义混合架构。
第150段(P0158)
原文复述
Jacobson, M. J., Goldwater, M., Markauskaite, L., Lai, P. K., Kapur, M., Roberts, G., & Hilton, C. (2020). Schema abstraction with productive failure and analogical comparison: Learning designs for far across domain transfer. Learning and Instruction, 65, 101222.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Jacobson, M. J., Goldwater, M., Markauskaite, L., Lai, P. K., Kapur, M., Roberts, G., & Hilton, C.(2020)。通过生产性失败与类比比较的图式抽象:远跨领域迁移的学习设计。《学习与教学》,65,101222。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"多源类比比较增进理解"(原则1)。
第151段(P0159)
原文复述
Jacobson, M. J., Markauskaite, L., Portolese, A., Kapur, M., Lai, P. K., & Roberts, G. (2017). Designs for learning about climate
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Jacobson, M. J., Markauskaite, L., Portolese, A., Kapur, M., Lai, P. K., & Roberts, G.(2017)。关于气候变化作为复杂系统的学习设计。文本在期刊卷期位置被截断。
补充说明
该文献与下文P0163的卷期信息合并。
第152段(P0160)
原文复述
Volume 15—Number 3
中文讲解
期刊版头:第15卷,第3期。
第153段(P0161)
原文复述
1751228x, 2021, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.1228 by Indiana University Bloomington, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
中文讲解
Wiley在线图书馆下载与版权声明。
第154段(P0162)
原文复述
change as a complex system. Learning and Instruction, 52, 1–14.
中文讲解
参考文献条目(接续):作为复杂系统的气候变化。《学习与教学》,52,1–14。
补充说明
与P0159合并为完整文献条目。
第155段(P0163)
原文复述
Jaeger, A. J., Taylor, A. R., & Wiley, J. (2016). When, and for whom, analogies help: The role of spatial skills and interleaved presentation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(8), 1121.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Jaeger, A. J., Taylor, A. R., & Wiley, J.(2016)。类比何时以及为谁有帮助:空间技能与交错呈现的作用。《教育心理学杂志》,108(8),1121。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"放气球—厄尔尼诺"类比帮助低空间能力者(原则1)。
第156段(P0164)
原文复述
Jaeger, A. J., & Wiley, J. (2015). Reading an analogy can cause the illusion of comprehension. Discourse Processes, 52(5–6), 376–405.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Jaeger, A. J., & Wiley, J.(2015)。阅读类比可能导致理解的错觉。《话语过程》,52(5–6),376–405。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比对能力较低学生可能有害"和"认知资源较少学生获益较低"。
第157段(P0165)
原文复述
Jee, B. D., Uttal, D. H., Gentner, D., Manduca, C., Shipley, T. F., & Sageman, B. (2013). Finding faults: Analogical comparison supports spatial concept learning in geoscience. Cognitive Processing, 14(2), 175–187.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Jee, B. D., Uttal, D. H., Gentner, D., Manduca, C., Shipley, T. F., & Sageman, B.(2013)。寻找断层:类比比较支持地球科学中的空间概念学习。《认知处理》,14(2),175–187。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比对于高水平先备知识者尤其有帮助"。
第158段(P0166)
原文复述
Kalyuga, S. (2007). Expertise reversal effect and its implications for learner-tailored instruction. Educational Psychology Review, 19(4), 509–539. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-007-9054-3
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Kalyuga, S.(2007)。专长反转效应及其对学习者定制教学的意义。《教育心理学评论》,19(4),509–539。
补充说明
专长反转效应是原则5的核心依据之一。
第159段(P0167)
原文复述
Kalyuga, S., & Singh, A.-M. (2016). Rethinking the boundaries of cognitive load theory in complex learning. Educational Psychology Review, 28(4), 831–852.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Kalyuga, S., & Singh, A.-M.(2016)。在复杂学习中重新思考认知负荷理论的边界。《教育心理学评论》,28(4),831–852。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"认知负荷理论已被讨论"。
第160段(P0168)
原文复述
Keane, M. T. (1988) Analogical problem solving. Chichester, England: Ellis Horwood.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Keane, M. T.(1988)《类比问题解决》。奇切斯特,英格兰:Ellis Horwood出版社。
补充说明
该专著为类比问题解决领域的研究文献。
第161段(P0169)
原文复述
Kimball, D. R., & Holyoak, K. J. (2000). Transfer and expertise. In E. Tulving, & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Oxford handbook of memory. (pp. 109–122). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Kimball, D. R., & Holyoak, K. J.(2000)。迁移与专长。载于E. Tulving, & F. I. M. Craik(编)《牛津记忆手册》(109–122页)。纽约,牛津大学出版社。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"先备知识改变新知识编码"。
第162段(P0170)
原文复述
Klein, P. D., Piacente-Cimini, S., & Williams, L. A. (2007). The role of writing in learning from analogies. Learning and Instruction, 17(6), 595–611.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Klein, P. D., Piacente-Cimini, S., & Williams, L. A.(2007)。写作在从类比中学习的作用。《学习与教学》,17(6),595–611。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比样例的对齐和比较改善STEM学习"。
第163段(P0171)
原文复述
Kotovsky, L., & Gentner, D. (1996). Comparison and categorization in the development of relational similarity. Child Development, 67(6), 2797–2822.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Kotovsky, L., & Gentner, D.(1996)。关系相似性发展中的比较与范畴化。《儿童发展》,67(6),2797–2822。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比比较增进对关系的注意"。
第164段(P0172)
原文复述
Krawczyk, D. C., Morrison, R. G., Viskontas, I., Holyoak, K. J., Chow, T. W., Mendez, M. F., … Knowlton, B. J. (2008). Distraction during relational reasoning: The role of prefrontal cortex in interference control. Neuropsychologia, 46(7), 2020–2032.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Krawczyk, D. C., Morrison, R. G., Viskontas, I., Holyoak, K. J., Chow, T. W., Mendez, M. F., … Knowlton, B. J.(2008)。关系推理中的分心:前额叶皮层在干扰控制中的作用。《神经心理学》,46(7),2020–2032。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比加工依赖抑制控制等认知能力"。
第165段(P0173)
原文复述
Kubose, T. T., Holyoak, K. J., & Hummel, J. E. (2002). The role of textual coherence in incremental analogical mapping. Journal of Memory and Language, 47(3), 407–435.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Kubose, T. T., Holyoak, K. J., & Hummel, J. E.(2002)。文本连贯性在增量类比映射中的作用。《记忆与语言杂志》,47(3),407–435。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"从更连贯源到较少理解目标的映射更准确"(原则1)。
第166段(P0174)
原文复述
Kubricht, J. R., Lu, H., & Holyoak, K. J. (2017). Individual differences in spontaneous analogical transfer. Memory & Cognition, 45(4), 576–588. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-016- 0687-7
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Kubricht, J. R., Lu, H., & Holyoak, K. J.(2017)。自发类比迁移的个体差异。《记忆与认知》,45(4),576–588。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"执行功能与类比推理相关"。
第167段(P0175)
原文复述
Lamond, G. (2016). Precedent and analogy in legal reasoning. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. (Spring 2016 ed.), Stanford, CA: Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford .edu/archives/spr2016/entries/legal-reas-prec/
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Lamond, G.(2016)。法律推理中的先例与类比。载于E. N. Zalta(编)《斯坦福哲学百科全书》(2016年春季版)。斯坦福,加州:斯坦福大学形而上学研究实验室。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"法律领域也可受益于类比"(结论部分)。
第168段(P0176)
原文复述
Lassaline, M. E. (1996). Structural alignment in induction and similarity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22(3), 754–770. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278- 7393.22.3.754
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Lassaline, M. E.(1996)。归纳与相似性中的结构对齐。《实验心理学杂志:学习、记忆与认知》,22(3),754–770。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"人们更可能基于A导致B而非A先于B进行类比推理"。
第169段(P0177)
原文复述
Lee, H. S., DeWolf, M., Bassok, M., & Holyoak, K. J. (2016). Conceptual and procedural distinctions between fractions and decimals: A cross-national comparison. Cognition, 147, 57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2015.11.005
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Lee, H. S., DeWolf, M., Bassok, M., & Holyoak, K. J.(2016)。分数与小数之间的概念与程序区分:一项跨国比较。《认知》,147,57–69。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"语义对齐在韩国学生中也发挥作用"(原则3)。
第170段(P0178)
原文复述
Lee, H. S., & Holyoak, K. J. (2008). The role of causal models in analogical inference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(5), 1111–1122. https:// doi.org/10.1037/a0012581
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Lee, H. S., & Holyoak, K. J.(2008)。因果模型在类比推理中的作用。《实验心理学杂志:学习、记忆与认知》,34(5),1111–1122。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"人们对生成性原因和预防性原因区别处理"。
第171段(P0179)
原文复述
Loewenstein, J., Thompson, L., & Gentner, D. (2003). An examination of analogical learning in negotiation teams. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 2(2), 119–127.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Loewenstein, J., Thompson, L., & Gentner, D.(2003)。谈判团队中类比学习的考察。《管理学会学习与教育》,2(2),119–127。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"多源类比比较的共性识别"(原则1)。
第172段(P0180)
原文复述
Lu, H., Wu, Y. N., & Holyoak, K. J. (2019). Emergence of analogy from relation learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 116, 4176–4181.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Lu, H., Wu, Y. N., & Holyoak, K. J.(2019)。类比从关系学习中的涌现。《美国国家科学院院刊》,116,4176–4181。
补充说明
该研究探讨类比如何从关系学习中涌现。
第173段(P0181)
原文复述
Martin, S. A., & Bassok, M. (2005). Effects of semantic cues on mathematical modeling: Evidence from word-problem solving and equation construction tasks. Memory & Cognition, 33(3), 471–478.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Martin, S. A., & Bassok, M.(2005)。语义线索对数学建模的影响:来自文字题解答与方程构建任务的证据。《记忆与认知》,33(3),471–478。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"现实世界关系与算式对齐时学生构建方程错误更少"(原则3)。
第174段(P0182)
原文复述
Matlen, B., Vosniadou, S., Jee, B., & Ptouchkina, M. (2011). Enhancing the comprehension of science text through visual analogies. In L. Carlson, C. Hoelscher & T. F. Shipley (Eds.), Proceedings of the 33rd annual meeting of the cognitive science society. (pp. 674–679). Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Matlen, B., Vosniadou, S., Jee, B., & Ptouchkina, M.(2011)。通过视觉类比增进科学文本理解。载于L. Carlson, C. Hoelscher & T. F. Shipley(编)《第33届认知科学学会年会论文集》(674–679页)。奥斯汀,得克萨斯州:认知科学学会。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"视觉空间线索传达共享结构"(原则2)。
第175段(P0183)
原文复述
McNamara, D. S., & Kintsch, W. (1996). Learning from texts: Effects of prior knowledge and text coherence. Discourse Processes, 22(3), 247–288.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:McNamara, D. S., & Kintsch, W.(1996)。从文本中学习:先备知识与文本连贯性的影响。《话语过程》,22(3),247–288。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"相关先备知识对学习的正向影响"(原则1)。
第176段(P0184)
原文复述
Metcalfe, J., & Kornell, N. (2007). Principles of cognitive science in education: The effects of generation, errors, and feedback. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14(2), 225–229. https://doi .org/10.3758/BF03194056
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Metcalfe, J., & Kornell, N.(2007)。教育中的认知科学原则:生成、错误与反馈的作用。《心理通报与评论》,14(2),225–229。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"生成效应在教育情境中也得到证明"(原则5)。
第177段(P0185)
原文复述
Nokes-Malach, T. J., VanLehn, K., Belenky, D. M., Lichtenstein, M., & Cox, G. (2013). Coordinating principles and examples through analogy and self-explanation. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(4), 1237–1263.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Nokes-Malach, T. J., VanLehn, K., Belenky, D. M., Lichtenstein, M., & Cox, G.(2013)。通过类比与自我解释协调原理与例子。《欧洲教育心理学杂志》,28(4),1237–1263。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"物理概念的类比比较增加远迁移"。
第178段(P0186)
原文复述
Novick, L. R., & Holyoak, K. J. (1991). Mathematical problem solving by analogy. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 17, 398–415.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Novick, L. R., & Holyoak, K. J.(1991)。通过类比进行数学问题解决。《实验心理学杂志:学习、记忆与认知》,17,398–415。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"显式指出对应关系降低认知负荷"(原则4)。
第179段(P0187)
原文复述
Orgill, M., & Bodner, G. M. (2006). An analysis of the effectiveness of analogy use in college-level biochemistry textbooks. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43(10), 1040–1060.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Orgill, M., & Bodner, G. M.(2006)。大学生物化学教科书中类比使用有效性的分析。《科学教学研究杂志》,43(10),1040–1060。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"约90%类比将具体源类比与抽象目标概念联系"(原则1)。
第180段(P0188)
原文复述
Rapp, M., Bassok, M., DeWolf, M., & Holyoak, K. J. (2015). Modeling discrete and continuous entities with fractions and decimals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 21(1), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000036
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Rapp, M., Bassok, M., DeWolf, M., & Holyoak, K. J.(2015)。用分数和小数建模离散与连续实体。《实验心理学杂志:应用》,21(1),47–56。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"语义对齐在美国学生中也发挥作用"(原则3)。
第181段(P0189)
原文复述
Richland, L. E., Kornell, N., & Kao, L. S. (2009). The pretesting effect: Do unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance learning? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 15(3), 243.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Richland, L. E., Kornell, N., & Kao, L. S.(2009)。前测效应:不成功的检索尝试能否增强学习?《实验心理学杂志:应用》,15(3),243。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"前测有助于改善学习成果"(原则1)。
第182段(P0190)
原文复述
Richland, L. E., & McDonough, I. M. (2010). Learning by analogy: Discriminating between potential analogs. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 35(1), 28–43.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Richland, L. E., & McDonough, I. M.(2010)。通过类比学习:辨别潜在类比。《当代教育心理学》,35(1),28–43。
补充说明
本文多次引用此文支持"手势和呈现方式促进类比比较"(原则2、4)。
第183段(P0191)
原文复述
Richland, L. E., Morrison, R. G., & Holyoak, K. J. (2006). Children’s development of analogical reasoning: Insights from scene analogy problems. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 94(3), 249–273.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Richland, L. E., Morrison, R. G., & Holyoak, K. J.(2006)。儿童类比推理的发展:来自场景类比问题的洞见。《实验儿童心理学杂志》,94(3),249–273。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"幼儿易被表面相似性吸引"(结论)。
第184段(P0192)
原文复述
Richland, L. E., Stigler, J. W., & Holyoak, K. J. (2012). Teaching the conceptual structure of mathematics. Educational Psychologist, 47(3), 189–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2012 .667065
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Richland, L. E., Stigler, J. W., & Holyoak, K. J.(2012)。教授数学的概念结构。《教育心理学家》,47(3),189–203。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"许多学生缺乏对基本数学运算的概念理解"(原则3)。
第185段(P0193)
原文复述
Richland, L. E., Zur, O., & Holyoak, K. J. (2007). Cognitive supports for analogies in the mathematics classroom. Science, 316(5828), 1128–1129.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Richland, L. E., Zur, O., & Holyoak, K. J.(2007)。数学课堂中类比的认知支持。《科学》,316(5828),1128–1129。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"美国数学教师未充分突出概念结构"(障碍部分)。
第186段(P0194)
原文复述
Rittle-Johnson, B., & Star, J. R. (2007). Does comparing solution methods facilitate conceptual and procedural knowledge? An experimental study on learning to solve equations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(3), 561–574.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Rittle-Johnson, B., & Star, J. R.(2007)。比较解题方法是否有助于概念与程序知识?一项学习解方程的实验研究。《教育心理学杂志》,99(3),561–574。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"共享结构通过视觉空间线索传达"(原则2)。
第187段(P0195)
原文复述
Rittle-Johnson, B., Star, J. R., & Durkin, K. (2009). The importance of prior knowledge when comparing examples: Influences on
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Rittle-Johnson, B., Star, J. R., & Durkin, K.(2009)。比较例子时先备知识的重要性:对…的影响。文本在此处跨页被截断。
补充说明
与P0198-P0199合并为完整条目。
第188段(P0196)
原文复述
Volume 15—Number 3
中文讲解
期刊版头:第15卷,第3期。
第189段(P0197)
原文复述
1751228x, 2021, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.12288 by Indiana University Bloomington, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
中文讲解
Wiley在线图书馆下载与版权声明。
第190段(P0198)
原文复述
conceptual and procedural knowledge of equation solving. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(4), 836.
中文讲解
参考文献条目(接续):方程求解的概念与程序知识。《教育心理学杂志》,101(4),836。
补充说明
与P0194-P0195合并为完整条目。
第191段(P0199)
原文复述
Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. (1977) Scripts, plans, goals and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge structures. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P.(1977)《脚本、计划、目标与理解:对人类知识结构的探究》。希尔斯代尔,新泽西州:Erlbaum出版社。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比对应关系基于因果/功能关系匹配"。
第192段(P0200)
原文复述
Schwartz, D. L., Chase, C. C., Oppezzo, M. A., & Chin, D. B. (2011). Practicing versus inventing with contrasting cases: The effects of telling first on learning and transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(4), 759.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Schwartz, D. L., Chase, C. C., Oppezzo, M. A., & Chin, D. B.(2011)。在对比案例中练习与发明:先行告知对学习与迁移的影响。《教育心理学杂志》,103(4),759。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"延迟直接教学并提供挑战性发现机会可带来更优学习"(原则4)。
第193段(P0201)
原文复述
Simms, N. K., & Richland, L. E. (2019). Generating relations elicits a relational mindset in children. Cognitive Science, 43(10), e12795. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12795
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Simms, N. K., & Richland, L. E.(2019)。生成关系引发儿童的关系思维模式。《认知科学》,43(10),e12795。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"生成关系信息可能鼓励参与者关注关系"(原则5)。
第194段(P0202)
原文复述
Simon, H. A., & Hayes, J. R. (1976). The understanding process: Problem isomorphs. Cognitive Psychology, 8(2), 165–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(76)90022-0
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Simon, H. A., & Hayes, J. R.(1976)。理解过程:问题同构。《认知心理学》,8(2),165–190。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"扎实概念理解对数学推理的重要性"(原则3)。
第195段(P0203)
原文复述
Spellman, B. A., & Holyoak, K. J. (1992). If Saddam is Hitler then who is George Bush? Analogical mapping between systems of social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(6), 913–933.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Spellman, B. A., & Holyoak, K. J.(1992)。如果萨达姆是希特勒那么谁是乔治·布什?社会角色系统之间的类比映射。《人格与社会心理学杂志》,62(6),913–933。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"政治学领域也可受益于类比"(结论)。
第196段(P0204)
原文复述
Spellman, B. A., & Holyoak, K. J. (1996). Pragmatics in analogical mapping. Cognitive Psychology, 31(3), 307–346. https://doi .org/10.1006/cogp.1996.0019
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Spellman, B. A., & Holyoak, K. J.(1996)。类比映射中的语用学。《认知心理学》,31(3),307–346。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比思维受务实目标引导"。
第197段(P0205)
原文复述
Stigler, J. W., Givvin, K. B., & Thompson, B. J. (2010). What community college developmental mathematics students understand about mathematics. MathAMATYC Educator, 1(3), 4–16.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Stigler, J. W., Givvin, K. B., & Thompson, B. J.(2010)。社区学院发展性数学学生理解数学的什么。《MathAMATYC教育者》,1(3),4–16。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"许多学生缺乏对基本数学运算的概念理解"(原则3)。
第198段(P0206)
原文复述
Sweller, J. (2011). Cognitive load theory. In J. P. Mester, & B. H. Ross (Eds.), Psychology of learning and motivation. Cognition in education (Vol. 55, pp. 37–76). Cambridge, MA: Elsevier.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Sweller, J.(2011)。认知负荷理论。载于J. P. Mester, & B. H. Ross(编)《学习与动机心理学:教育中的认知》(第55卷,37–76页)。剑桥,麻省:Elsevier出版社。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"认知负荷理论的内/外在二分"(原则4)。
第199段(P0207)
原文复述
Tohill, J. M., & Holyoak, K. J. (2000). The impact of anxiety on analogical reasoning. Thinking & Reasoning, 6(1), 27–40.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Tohill, J. M., & Holyoak, K. J.(2000)。焦虑对类比推理的影响。《思维与推理》,6(1),27–40。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"执行功能与类比推理相关"。
第200段(P0208)
原文复述
Touw, K. W. J., Vogelaar, B., Verdel, R., Bakker, M., & Resing, W. (2017). Children’s progress in solving figural analogies: Are outcomes of dynamic testing helpful for teachers? Educational and Child Psychology, 34(1), 21–38.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Touw, K. W. J., Vogelaar, B., Verdel, R., Bakker, M., & Resing, W.(2017)。儿童解决图形类比的进步:动态测试结果对教师有帮助吗?《教育与儿童心理学》,34(1),21–38。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"图形类比测试得分低的儿童具有相似学习潜力"。
第201段(P0209)
原文复述
Treagust, D. F., Harrison, A. G., & Venville, G. J. (1998). Teaching science effectively with analogies: An approach for preservice and inservice teacher education. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 9(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1023/A: 1009423030880
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Treagust, D. F., Harrison, A. G., & Venville, G. J.(1998)。用类比有效教学科学:一种职前与在职教师教育的方法。《科学教师教育杂志》,9(2),85–101。
补充说明
本文引用此文为先前类比教学指南之一(与P0037对应)。
第202段(P0210)
原文复述
Tyumeneva, Y. A., Larina, G., Alexandrova, E., DeWolf, M., Bassok, M., & Holyoak, K. J. (2018). Semantic alignment across whole-number arithmetic and rational numbers: Evidence from a Russian perspective. Thinking & Reasoning, 24(2), 198–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546783.2017.1374307
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Tyumeneva, Y. A., Larina, G., Alexandrova, E., DeWolf, M., Bassok, M., & Holyoak, K. J.(2018)。整数算术与有理数之间的语义对齐:来自俄罗斯视角的证据。《思维与推理》,24(2),198–220。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"语义对齐在俄罗斯学生中也发挥作用"(原则3)。
第203段(P0211)
原文复述
Vendetti, M. S., Matlen, B. J., Richland, L. E., & Bunge, S. A. (2015). Analogical reasoning in the classroom: Insights from cognitive science. Mind, Brain, and Education, 9(2), 100–106.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Vendetti, M. S., Matlen, B. J., Richland, L. E., & Bunge, S. A.(2015)。课堂中的类比推理:来自认知科学的洞见。《心智、大脑与教育》,9(2),100–106。
补充说明
本文引用此文为先前类比教学指南之一(与P0037对应)。
第204段(P0212)
原文复述
Vendetti, M. S., Wu, A., & Holyoak, K. J. (2014). Far-out thinking: Generating solutions to distant analogies promotes relational thinking. Psychological Science, 25(4), 928–933. https://doi .org/10.1177/0956797613518079
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Vendetti, M. S., Wu, A., & Holyoak, K. J.(2014)。远距离思维:为远距离类比生成解促进关系思维。《心理科学》,25(4),928–933。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"生成类比推论可引发关系思维模式"(原则5)。
第205段(P0213)
原文复述
Venville, G. J., Bryer, L., & Treagust, D. F. (1994). Training students in the use of analogies to enhance understanding in science. Australian Science Teachers Journal, 40(2), 60–66.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Venville, G. J., Bryer, L., & Treagust, D. F.(1994)。训练学生使用类比以增进科学理解。《澳大利亚科学教师杂志》,40(2),60–66。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"学生可能不知道如何有效利用类比"(原则1)。
第206段(P0214)
原文复述
Viskontas, I. V., Morrison, R. G., Holyoak, K. J., Hummel, J. E., & Knowlton, B. J. (2004). Relational integration, inhibition, and analogical reasoning in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 19(4), 581–591.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Viskontas, I. V., Morrison, R. G., Holyoak, K. J., Hummel, J. E., & Knowlton, B. J.(2004)。老年人的关系整合、抑制与类比推理。《心理学与老龄化》,19(4),581–591。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比加工依赖工作记忆、抑制控制等认知能力"。
第207段(P0215)
原文复述
Waltz, J. A., Lau, A., Grewal, S. K., & Holyoak, K. J. (2000). The role of working memory in analogical mapping. Memory & Cognition, 28(7), 1205–1212.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Waltz, J. A., Lau, A., Grewal, S. K., & Holyoak, K. J.(2000)。工作记忆在类比映射中的作用。《记忆与认知》,28(7),1205–1212。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比加工依赖工作记忆"。
第208段(P0216)
原文复述
Yanowitz, K. L. (2001). Using analogies to improve elementary school students’ inferential reasoning about scientific concepts. School Science and Mathematics, 101(3), 133–142.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Yanowitz, K. L.(2001)。使用类比改善小学生关于科学概念的推理。《学校科学与数学》,101(3),133–142。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"类比推理能力能引导科学发现"(原则1)。
第209段(P0217)
原文复述
Zook, K. B., & Maier, J. M. (1994). Systematic analysis of variables that contribute to the formation of analogical misconceptions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(4), 589–600.
中文讲解
参考文献条目:Zook, K. B., & Maier, J. M.(1994)。促成类比误解形成的变量系统分析。《教育心理学杂志》,86(4),589–600。
补充说明
本文引用此文支持"能力较低学生可能因教育材料中的类比而受到伤害"。
第210段(P0218)
原文复述
Volume 15—Number 3
中文讲解
期刊版头:第15卷,第3期。
第211段(P0219)
原文复述
175.1228x, 2021, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.12288 by Indiana University Bloomington, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
中文讲解
Wiley在线图书馆下载与版权声明。
第212段(P0220)
原文复述
175.1228x, 2021, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.12288 by Indiana University Bloomington, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
中文讲解
Wiley在线图书馆下载与版权声明。
脚注 / 边栏 / 图表 / 附加信息(如有)
本节包含五个图像/表格元素:(1) 图1(餐厅厨房与细胞类比,Caryn Gray绘图)位于第2页;(2) 图2(Gick与Holyoak实验成功率)被正文引用但未直接给出图注;(3) 图3(类比推理主要过程,Holyoak 2019许可转载)位于第4页;(4) 图4(反馈回路的类比例子,温度—空调与血糖—胰岛素)位于第8页;(5) 图5(生态系统建模示例,四条言语假设与微分方程组)位于第9页。还有表1(五项原则的总结)位于第6页。NSF资助声明(BCS-1827374)出现在结论与参考文献之间。这些附加材料共同支撑正文论述的实证与可视化基础。
💡 本节核心要点
- 类比问题解决的理论根基是Gick与Holyoak的将军—辐射实验,其核心机制是"源—目标映射"和"图式归纳"。
- 类比教学的核心原则是突出因果/功能关系,而非表面相似性;这要求教学者显式标注对应关系。
- 五项原则(利用先备知识、突出共享结构、解释语义—数学对应、考虑认知负荷、鼓励生成推论)相互关联,应联合应用而非孤立实施。
- 个体认知资源差异是类比教学的关键障碍:低认知资源学生可能从类比中获益较少,甚至受到伤害;教学策略应通过视觉空间编码、颜色、手势、同时呈现等方式减轻认知负荷。
- 语义对齐(semantic alignment)是数学领域类比教学的核心机制:学生倾向于根据现实世界对象间的关系选择对称或非对称的数学运算。
- “专长反转效应"决定了原则5的适用边界:在学生具备一定熟练度后才宜让其生成推论,过早会让初学者认知超载。
- 类比的应用不限于STEM领域,政治学、商业、法律等非STEM领域同样可以(且应该)使用类比,但可能更多依赖言语而非视觉表征。
🔑 关键术语
- Analogical problem solving(类比问题解决):基于源—目标类比关系进行推理和迁移的过程,是本文理论框架的核心。
- Source analog(源类比):被迁移的、相对熟悉的领域或情境(如将军故事),作为类比推理的起点。
- Target(目标):待理解的新领域或情境(如辐射问题),是类比推理的终点。
- Schema induction(图式归纳):从多个符合共同类比图式的例子中抽取更抽象的关系图式,是类比促进灵活迁移和概括的基本机制。
- Causal relations(因果关系):驱动类比对应的核心关系类型,而非表面特征相似或单纯时间先后关系。
- Executive functions(执行功能):包括工作记忆、抑制控制等高层认知能力,是类比推理所依赖的认知资源池。
- Semantic alignment(语义对齐):保持现实世界对象之间的语义关系与算术运算参数之间数学关系的系统性对应的倾向,是数学领域类比教学的关键机制。
- Cognitive load(认知负荷):学习过程施加于学习者的认知资源消耗,可分为内在负荷(材料难度)和外在负荷(呈现方式)。
- Extraneous load(外在负荷):随呈现方式而非材料本身变化的认知负荷,可通过同时呈现、空间对齐、颜色编码、手势等方式降低。
- Generation effect(生成效应):主动生成信息比被动学习带来更好保持的效应,是原则5"鼓励生成推论"的理论基础。
- Expertise reversal effect(专长反转效应):低知识学习者受益于显式指导、高知识学习者受益于减少脚手架的效应,决定了原则5的适用时机。
- Prior knowledge(先备知识):学习者带入新学习情境的已有知识,是类比教学利用以促进新知识理解的关键资源。